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THE GEAMMAE 



GERMAN LANGUAGE 



pfytlosopfyu-alli) feoelopei). 



G. M. HEILNER, 



FOR UPWARDS OF FORTY YEARS PROFESSOR OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGE 
AND LITERATURE IN LONDON. 



fiefo itesue. 




LONDON: 

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE; & DAVID NUTT. 



1851 



PREFACE. 



THE Grammar now offered to the English Public is de- 
signed both for the beginner and for the more advanced 
student. To the former, a few observations on the right 
mode of using it, may not be superfluous. 

Among the various methods of learning a foreign lan- 
guage, that of beginning to read (and to speak, if there is 
an opportunity for it), after a short grammatical prepara- 
tion, seems to be not only the most agreeable, but the most 
expeditious. To learn a number of minute rules and ex- 
ceptions at a time when the student is yet unable to form, 
or even to understand, a short simple sentence, can have 
no other effect than that he will half forget them before 
they can be applied. For the general principles of a lan- 
guage, like all generalization, can engage attention, and be 
fully understood, only in as far as they explain and classify 
particulars with which we are previously acquainted. Ac- 
cordingly, the best preparation, both for understanding and 
remembering a rule, is to have previously felt its want, so 
that on receiving it we at once see its practical utility. It is 
evident, therefore, that the first use to be made of grammar 
should be a selection of those rules and tables which imme- 
diately lead to reading and speaking, and which the learner 

a 2 



IV PREFACE. 






may generally be supposed to understand from the gram- 
mar of his own language. The term "selection" is advisedly 
used here ; for the rules and tables in question are so few, 
that however short a grammar may be, it must necessarily 
contain more than is in the first instance required. On 
the other hand, to begin reading without any preparatory 
instruction, and to have to find out all the accidents of 
words and their imports as well as one can, is, to say the 
least of it, not the shortest way of acquiring a language. 
Surely, for the mere remembering of variable words, we 
must be able to ascertain their grammatical root, if we are 
not to commit to memory all the various forms of the same 
word. 

In application of these remarks to the present work, the 
beginner is advised, after making himself acquainted with 
the leading rules of pronunciation, to learn, 1. the declen- 
sion of the definitives (§29, 30) ; 2. the table of personal 
pronouns (p. 121) ; 3. the conjugation of the regular 
verbs (§ 77) > 4. that portion of the principles of the irre- 
gular conjugation in § 83. which is printed in a larger type, 
together with the explanation of the list of irregular verbs 
in § 85. The list itself is intended rather for reference 
than to be learned by rote ; as a thorough knowledge of 
all the irregular verbs can be acquired only by reading. 
The classification of them in § 86, and the table in Obs. 2 
of the same section, will be found of more immediate use ; 
the former for speaking, the latter in reading. The learner 
should then study § 89, with the observations in the same 
section on the position of the verb and of its component 
oarts. These observations, though strictly belonging to 
syntax, are indispensable for understanding the conjuga- 



PREFACE. V 

tion of the German compound verbs, for which reason 
they have been introduced in the place now referred to. 

If the speaking German is the immediate object of 
any learner, he must make himself acquainted with the 
principal rules on the declension of nouns (§ 40, 44, 51) 
even before studying the irregular verbs. The rules, also, 
on the gender of nouns, and even the leading rule in § 135, 
will then be required early. For mere reading, on the 
contrary, the declension of substantives and adjectives 
may be learned at a later period, as their inflections are 
few and easily understood, so that an accurate knowledge 
of them is not, at first, indispensable. 

Provided with the information here pointed out to him, 
the student should forthwith commence reading some easy 
book. The copious table of contents will enable him 
readily to find the particular information for which, in the 
course of his reading, he may have occasion : and thus, by 
consulting the Grammar for the purpose of removing the 
difficulties which will from time to time occur, he will, in 
a great measure, have become familiar with its more im- 
portant parts even before he sets about the regular perusal 
of it. 

As of common origin with the English, as a language 
that has eminently developed its native capabilities, and 
has preserved its primitive grammatical forms to a greater 
extent than the other Teutonic dialects, the German is also 
in an etymological point of view deserving the English 
student's attention. In the coarse of his study he will 
often observe the close affinity still existing between 
the two languages, and will, perhaps with some surprise, 



VI PREFACE. 






perceive how little time., conquest, and an inundation of 
foreign words, have been able to change the Teutonic 
character of the English language. The remarks inter- 
spersed through the work, pointing out the analogies of 
the two languages, may perhaps in this respect, interest 
the inquiring reader ; though most of them are introduced 
for a more practical purpose, especially the greater portion 
of § 26*, which will be found serviceable towards learning 
a very considerable quantity of German words. 

What has been said hitherto refers chiefly to the most 
advisable mode of using this Grammar. Of its intrinsic 
value it is not for me to judge. That it is not a mere com- 
pilation will easily be perceived : some parts of it may, 
perhaps, possess an interest even for a German reader. 
But the great object of the work, to which all that it may 
contain of novelty, either in matter or manner, is intended 
to be subservient, is the facilitating to the English learner 
the acquisition of the German language ; an aim which, 
I would fain hope, the book will be found in a considerable 
degree to attain. 



* It needs hardly to be expressly mentioned, that, with the exception 
of some observations and notes, the remarks of that section are taken 
principally from the first volume of the justly celebrated' Teutonic 
grammar of Dr. Grimm. 



London, December 1, 1841, 



CONTENTS 



[Note. The figures marked with p. refer to the page; those without any de- 
signation, to the Section (§) which is marked over every page.] 

Introduction. The different Teutonic dialects ; the two main 
branches ; modern German or 2)etltfcb belongs to no particular pro- 
vince; the German is a primitive language; unnecessary introduction 
of foreign words, (p. 1-6.) 

Part I. PRONUNCIATION and ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Section. , 

1. The German alphabet. 

2. Of vowels, including a, c, u ; — aa, ee, CO, te. (p. 12.) 
s. Diphthongs et, et>, at, ay, att, au, eu. 

4-8. Consonants; their classification (4); Labials, b, p, &c. (5); Pa- 
latals, C, c&, &c. (6) ; Unguals, b, t, fp...f!, £, f#, &c. (7) ; Li- 
quids, i, m, n,r(8). 
Comparative table of all the sounds of the two languages (p. 21). 
9-11. Pronunciations of words adopted from foreign languages. 
12. Radical and servile syllables; prefixes and annexes or suffixes; 
syllables of inflection and derivation. 
13, 14. Vowel quantity. 

15-21. Accentuation. — German words (without prefixes) accent the 
first, foreign words (20), the last syllable ; except certain com- 
pounds (16-18) ; remarks thereon (19) ; secondary accent(21). 
22-25. Orthography. Capital letters (22); marking vowel quantity 
(23-24); orthographical variations (25); table of abbrevia- 
tions (p. 41). 

26. Interchange of English and German consonants of one and the 

same organ of speech. 

Part II. ETYMOLOGY. 

27. The nine parts of speech j letters of inflection used in the de- 

clension and conjugation; vowel inflection (cr Umlattt); gram- 
matical root (Obs. p. 53). 

28. Accidents marked by the declension ; the nature of the four 

cases (Obs.) ; the various declinable parts of speech have differ- 
ent forms of declension. 

29. Definitives; complete and defective declension. 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

Section. 
30. The article ; its contraction with prepositions (Obs. 3). 
The Substantive (p. 59-95). 

31-39. Gender of nouns ; natural gender (32) ; diminutives (Obs.); 
designation of sex (33) ; grammatical gender depending on 
the form of the noun ; monosyllables, and nouns ending in ef, 
en, and er, are more generally of masculine (34); those in e, 
&ett, feit, fc&aft, ling, and et, of feminine (35) ; and those in 
tblim, fat, cfeeil, and (eilt, and several others, of the neuter 
gender (36) ; nouns of two genders (37) ; gender of foreign 
nouns (38), and of geographical names (39). 

40-43. Formation of the plural — by adding e, en, or (p. 76) ev (40) ; by 
the vowel inflection (41) ; elision of the e of inflection (p. 72); 
foreign nouns (42) ; nouns defective in number (43). 

44-49. Declension — four rules for forming the oblique cases (44) ; three 
declensions as exemplification of these rules (45-47) ; declen- 
sion of foreign nouns (48); and of proper names (49). 

50-52. Adjectives— abstract and concrete (50) ; the latter alone are 
declined ; employ different inflections when preceded by cer- 
tain definitives (51); are used as substantives (52). 

53-55. Degrees of comparison ; their formation (53), and declension 
(54); some adj. are irregular, some defective, in this respect (55). 

56, 57. Numerals. — Cardinals and ordinals (56) ; their declension ; 
$ween, JWO (Obs.3) ; ordinals used as substantives ; preceded by 
)e (Obs. 6); fceibe and anbere (Obs. 8); compounds (57) with 
fadb, er(et, ttial, ftalB, and felb ; derivatives, in er, en£, el; the 
words f>al6, ganj, lauter, and etfel (Obs. 3). 
58. Pronouns. — Difference between personal and definitive pro- 
nouns. 

59-61. Per«ma/ pronouns (59) ; theirformer genitives mein, bein, &c, 
compounded w/ith f)Ul6en, &c. (Obs. 1); origin of addressing 
in the third person (Obs. 2); the indefinite e$ (Obs. 3); re- 
flective pronouns (60); implying also reciprocity (Obs. 2); 
fetblt (Obs.3); indefinite personal pronouns (61) — man, je- 

manb, niemanb, jeberman. 

62. Definitive pronouns, comprehending all the following (63-66) ; 

the genitives in e» and ev are seldom used when the noun is 
understood. 

63. Possessive pronouns ; have different forms when the noun is 

understood (Obs.). 

64. Demonstrative pronouns— bjefer, jener, ber, berjentye, berfefte, 

folcfrev j used for er, fie, i$; beiTen and beren, for fein and i&r 
(Obs. 3); the compounds battlit, &temit,&c. (Obs. 4), betfylei- 

c&en (Obs. 5). 



CONTENTS. IX 

Section. 

65. Relative (and interrogative) pronouns — bet 1 , WefdKr, WCf, and. 

W<X$ ; how to render who, which, that (p. 137 seg.), and what 
(Obs. 4) ; relative adverbs— fo, WO, and ba, WOmit, &c. (Obs. 5). 

66. Quantitative pronouns— jeber, atter, manner, me&vere, t?telt% 

Wentge, &c; their import and use (Obs. 1); gettug, ettt>a», 
ntf|H*> (Ofo. 3) ; how to render some and any (Obs. 4). 
The Verb (p. 146-218). 

67. Various kinds of verbs — transitive, neuter, &c. 

68. Explanation of moods and participles ; the two leading features 

of the subjunctive; there are no compound participles in 
German (Obs. 2). 

69. Of tenses ; three of indefinite, and three of complete action. 

70. Of persons and numbers of the vorb. 

71. The regular conjugation (p. 153-181). 

72-74. Inflections of regular verbs; grammatical root of verbs; table, 
shewing all the simple forms of a regular verb (72) ; dision 
of the e of inflection (73); the augment ge (74). 

75, 76. Auxiliary verbs — ftaben, feptt, and werben, used as auxiliaries of 
the conjugation (75) ; tables of their own conjugation (p. 1 58); 
their function as auxiliaries (76) ; how to render the English 
auxiliary to do, and the paraphrastic conjugation — e. g. " I am 
waiting," &c. (Obs. 3). 
77. Paradigm or table of the whole regular conjugation, both of 
the active and passive voice. 

78-80. Remarks on some parts of the conjugation : — on the tenses of 
the subjunctive (78) ; on the use of fetjrt as an auxiliary of 
the passive voice (79), and as an auxiliary of certain neuter 
verbs (80). 

81,82. Potential mood; formed merely by auxiliaries (viz. fdntlfll,. 
m'ogen, wotten, bilrfen, fatten, mUfftri, and faffen) j their con- 
jugation (81) ; employ in certain cases the infinitive form for 
that of the part.-past (Obs. 2) ; their import (82) ; the infini- 
tive they govern is often understood (Obs. 3) ; how to render 
the English auxiliaries may (Obs. 4), and shall and will (Obs. 5). 

83-86. The Regular conjugation (p. 181-198) forms the imperfect and 
participle past by changing the radical vowel (83), and with it 
sometimes also its vowel quantity (Obs. 3) ; table of the irregu- 
lar conjugation (p. 183); derivatives of irregular verbs (84),- 
become regular when implying causation (Obs. 2); list of all 
the irregular verbs (85) ; their division into five classes (86) ; 
analogies of German and English irregular verbs (Obs. 1).; 
table, for ascertaining in reading the infinitive of an irregular 
verb (p. 198). 



X CONTENTS. 

Section. 

87. Reflective verbs ; their import; used passively (Obs. 2), and re- 

ciprocally (Obs. 3). 

88. Impersonal verbs ; some have an oblique case corresponding to 

the English nominative ; denote in the passive form an action 
going on, in the reflective form an aptitude (Obs. 2) ; omission 
of e$ (Obs, 3). 

89. Compound verbs; nineteen separable particles (ab, an, atlf, &c.) ; 

other components of the verb (Obs. 2);the separation arises 
from the different position of the assertive and non-assertive 
verb (Obs. 3) ; a few compound verbs are defective (p. 209). 

90. Uefrer, untev, um, and butd), are both separable and inseparable, 

according to their import. 

91-93. Import of the infinitive (91) and participles in their use as verbal 
nouns; £U, and gum, before infinitives (Obs. 2),- the infini- 
tive is used passively after fepn, and often also after fe&en, 
fcb'ven, and Iflffen (Obs. 3) ; the present participle joined with JU 
has a future passive import (92) ; in what sense the past parti- 
ciple can be used adjectively (93) ; anomalous import of some 
past participles (Obs. 1); some are joined with fomttien (Obs. 
2) ; may be used imperatively (ibid). 

94-99. Adverbs. — Their formation (94) j compounds with 2Bcrf6 and 
5)?flf en (Obs. 2 and 3) ; degrees of comparison (95) ; superla- 
tives with auf$, or, auf ba§ (Obs. 2) ; gar, fefjr (Obs. 3) ; ad- 
verbs noting direction (96) ; fjer and f)in, compounded with 
other particles, as frerauf, fjtnauf, &c; correlative particles 
noting scene and aim (p. 224) ; atlf and OffVtt, ba and bat 

(Obs. 4); adverbs of time (97),— ie, immer,einmal, einfr; how 

to render the English ever (Obs. 1) ; cx\t, fc&OU, no# (p. 228, 
scq.); j[a, W0% bod) (98); gut, and wofjl (Obs. 2); adverbs 
of affirmation and negation (99); nidbt, implying emphasis 
(Obs. 1) ; two negatives imply affirmation (Obs. 2). 

100-107. Prepositions.— Those governing the genitive (101); the da- 
tive (102); the accusative (103); the dative and accusative 
(104) ; import of those most in use (105 — compare also their 
import as separable particles in § 117); those noting subject- 
matter (Obs. 6) ; cause (Obs. 7) ; final cause (Obs. 8) ; noting 
time (106); prepositions used as adverbs (107) ; the particle 
repeated in the same clause, and characteristic distinction of 
prepositions and adverbs (Obs. 1) ; how to render the English 
before, after, since, and by (Obs. 3). 

108, 109. Conjunctions. — Their division into pure, subordinative, and 
adverbial (108); import of some of them, — as, and}, bc\\\\, fo, 
&c. (109); of the compounds with cb and Wenn (Obs. 1); 



CONTENTS. XI 



Section. 



of bo#, jebocfc, inbeffen, &c. (Obs. 2); of attein, afcer, and 

fonbcrn (Obs. 3) ; conjunctions noting cause (Obs. 4); com- 
parison (Obs. 5); time (Obs. 6). 
110. Interjections. 

Formation of Words (p. 271-298). 
111-115. Derivation ; is formed by annexes (or suffixes), and prefixes 

(i 11) j the endings e, ei, er, U'n or feit, ling, m$, fc&afr, 

tfjUttl, and ling, form substantives (112) ; 6ar, en,(wft, tcft, 
tg, if#, lt#, and fam, — adjectives (113); and ef and ig, 
— verbs (114); verbs in tren (Obs.) ; the prefixes, be, ent, 
CV, ge, VCV, and $er, form verbs (1 15) ; their etymology and 
import ; ge forms nouns also (p. 288). 
116-117. Composition. — Compound nouns (116) ; words most used in 
composition (Obs. 2) ; the negative utl (ibid.) ; compound 
verbs (117); import of the separable particles ab, an, &c. ; 
particles of nearly synonymous import (Obs. 2) ; and of op- 
posite import (Obs. 3). 

Part III. SYNTAX. 

1 1 8. Division of Syntax into the use of the declension (p. 298-324), 

the use of conjugation (p. 324-345), and the order of words 
(p. 345-353). 

119. Use of the articles. 

120. Agreement of nouns with their dependents ; apposition ; the 

English of not translated (Obs. 3 — see also § 123, Obs. 3). 
121-125. Cases; on what words they depend (121). — Nominative 
(122); verbs with two nominatives; Vocative (Obs. 2). — 
Genitive (123) ; import depending on its position (Obs. 2); 
nouns of quantity govern no case (Obs. 3) ; of rendered by 
OPtt (Obs. 4); lists of verbs and adjectives governing this 
case; adverbial genitive (p. 314) — Dative (124); answers 
to the English to and/or (Obs. 1) ; to the English genitive 
(p. 320) ; is governed by compound and other verbs (p. 
316 seq.) ; by adjectives (p. 321). — Accusative (125); is 
governed by all transitive, and by most impersonal and re- 
flective verbs; is used adverbially in noting time, space, 
quantity, and value ; and also with many neuter verbs (Obs. 
1); verbs joined with two accusatives (Obs. 2). 

1 26. Passive voice ; what verbs admit of it. 

127. Persons and numbers of the verb ; when its subject consists 

of a relative pronoun, or of two nouns, or of a collective 
noun (p. 325 seq.), or of e$, baS,&c. (Obs. 1) ; propositions 
without a subject (Obs. 2). 



Xll CONTENTS. 

Section. 

128. Tenses — present and past infinitive (Obs. 1); the tenses of 
the indicative often differ in the two languages; two sets 
of tenses in the subjunctive — present tenses for reporting, 
and imperfect tenses for imaginary cases (p. 329) ; tenses of 
dependent verbs are not regulated by the moment of speak- 
ing (Obs. 3); tenses of the potential auxiliaries (p. 331); 
how to render the English past infinitive when not deno- 
ting complete action {Obs. 5); Wtiilen joined with a past 
infinitive (Obs. 7) ; omission of £a6etl and fepn in subordi- 
nate clauses (Obs. 8). 

129-132. Moods. — The Subjunctive (130) ; is used after relatives re- 
ferring to general negatives, after conjunctions answering to 
the English, as if, in order that, or, to than before an infini- 
tive ; it softens assertions (p. 336). — The Imperative (131); 
may be expressed also paraphrastically ; passive imperative 
( Obs. 1) . — The Infinitive ( 1 32) is used with and without §ti ; 
three infinitives following each other without JU (Obs. 2) ; 
the subject with its verb cannot be turned into the accusative 
with the infinitive (Obs. 3) ; verbs generally joined with an 
infinitive ; how to render the English as before an infinitive 
(Obs. 4), and verbals in ing governed by a preposition ( Obs. 5). 
133. The Participles ; how to render the English nominative abso- 
lute, and compound participles, such as, " having finished," 
"being presented''; past participles used absolutely, and 
actively (Obs. 3). 

134, 135. Order oe words; the natural order (134); the words properly 
belonging to the predicate follow reverse orders in the two 
languages (p. 346); rules on the order of the several parts 
of speech (p. 347 seq.) ;— the inverted order (135) ; the finite 
assertive verb occupies the second place in a sentence 
(Obs. 1); leading features of the German order of words 
(p. 353). 
Appendix on Versification, p. 354-361. 

Supplementary Notes: — 1st, on the identity of mit and 
with ; 2nd, on the identity of 3^t, tilt, and tent ; 3rd, on the 
origin of the compound tenses ; 4th, on the origin of the 
regular and irregular conjugations. 



AN INTRODUCTION 



TO 



GERMAN GRAMMAR. 



1 . X HE German, or rather Teutonic, language (Scutfc^e 
©pvacfyc) is divided, even in its most ancient remains, into 
two principal branches : viz. the High German (.goctybeutfcf)), 
and Low German (9?ieberfc>eutfcl)). The latter was princi- 
pally spoken in the north of Germany, extending along the 
whole coast of the Baltic; and the dialect called ^JtflttCetltfcf}, 
which is still spoken by the common people in those parts, 
belongs to this branch. The seat of the High German was 
the South or Upper Germany; and the provincial dialects 
of that country are still, to a certain degree, remains of 
the Old High German. 

Each of these two main branches resolves itself again, as it 
may easily be supposed, into several minor ones. Thus the 
Old Saxon, Anglo-Saxon (and consequently also the En- 
glish), the Friesic, the Dutch, and even the Icelandic and 
the Scandinavian languages, belong all, more or less, to 
the Lower branch. The High German was subdivided into 
the Francic, Allemannic or Suabian, Bavarian, &c. ; but has 
given birth to no other written language than the present 
German. To what branch the Mceso-Gothic belongs (the 
dialect into which Ulphilas, a bishop of the Mceso-Goths, 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

in the 4th century, translated the Scriptures, and the frag- 
ments of which are the oldest remnants extant of the Teu- 
tonic), is not yet decided among philologists ; though our 
latest writers upon the subject think it more nearly allied 
to the Lower branch. Compare § 26. Obs. 1. 

2. The general preponderance of Upper Germany, both 
in civilization and in political power, and particularly the 
circumstance of all the emperors, with the exception of 
those of the House of Saxony, being princes of Upper Ger- 
many, were the natural causes of its language being sooner 
cultivated, of its becoming that of the court, of public trans- 
actions, and of the literature of the time, and even of its 
early spreading, to a limited degree, into the North. The 
Franks having been the founders of the German empire, 
and princes of that tribe having been for a long time, and 
at different periods, the emperors of Germany, theirs natu- 
rally became the leading and court dialect; and hence the 
Old German is often called Francic (JtrtuFtfcj)), which 
name was sometimes given to the language even as late as 
the 16th century. However, the celebrated songs of the 
Minnesingers (the Troubadours of Germany), under the 
splendid reign of the Suabian emperors in the 12th cen- 
tury, were in the Allemannic dialect. 

3. The Reformation forms an important epoch in the 
history of the German language; as the language natu- 
rally constituted the chief instrument in that long religious 
struggle, it became a powerful engine in the hands of Lu- 
ther and his friends, who, in using it, did much to enrich, 
refine, and improve it # . 

* Adelung, our great lexicographer and one of onr chief grammarians, 
asserts that Luther's improvement sprang merely from his writing in the 
Upper Saxon, his native dialect, which, from the flourishing state of that 
province, had become more refined than that of any other. But, in op- 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

Luther is considered by many as the father of the present 
German. His writings, particularly his translations of the 
Scriptures and his Sermons, were read with eagerness by 
the whole nation, and imitated by most writers of that time : 
and the North of Germany, where the Plattdeutsch was 
beginning to be cultivated, and was likely to become a 
written tongue, received Luther's language along with his 
doctrines. The High German, thus, as it were, revised and 
improved, has been since cultivated by the writers of all 
Germany, and has by degrees become the language of the 
pulpit, of the stage, of literature, — in short, of the educated 
classes of the whole country; and is that which is now 
meant by the general name of German (Setttfcl;), and 
which forms the sole subject of the present Grammar. 
From its origin it is yet often called .pocfybeutfdb ; but no 
longer in opposition merely to Low German, but in contra- 
distinction to the provincial dialects of all Germany. 

Since the commencement of the modern German litera- 
ture, about the middle of the last century, the fertility and 
great power of the language, which, by drawing on its own 
inexhaustible resources of derivation and composition, can 
express every shade of thought and feeling, even to the very 
nicest, have been more and more displayed by successive 



position to this opinion, Luther's own has been justly quoted by a late 
writer. In his Table Talk (Xifcfrveben) Luther says, that he uses the gene- 
ral language of Germany, in order that he may be understood both by 
the Upper and Lower Germans. This general language, he continues, is 
that used in courts of law and in all public instruments (^an^eKei- 
fpraclK) in Saxony; and is also the language of the courts of all the 
princes, and of all the Imperial cities in Germany. Now, Adelung him- 
self elsewhere says repeatedly, that the prevailing language in Germany 
at the time of the Reformation, and even for some time after, was in 
fact no other than the written language of the South of Germany : i.e. 
the Old High German. So that it is clear from Luther's own testimony 
that he did not write in the exclusive dialect of Upper Saxony, nor of 
any other province. 

B 2 



INTRODUCTION. 



poets, philosophers, translators, and authors of all descrip- 
tions. 



4. Our grammarians now generally agree that there is 
no leading province, or city, the idiom and pronunciation of 
which are entitled to be considered the standard of pure 
German ; but that all the provinces have, as it were, an equal 
share in the legislation of the language; although some 
approach nearer to perfection and purity than others. 

Adelung, indeed, has taken great pains to prove that our 
modern written German (.£>ocl}beUtfc^) is no other than 
the Upper Saxon dialect, and more particularly that of 
Meissen, where the language, according to him, is most 
correctly spoken, and which place, therefore, he considers 
as the Athens of Germany; asserting, that whatever de- 
viates from its idiom and pronunciation, must be deemed a 
provincialism. This doctrine has, however, not convinced 
the nation at large : on the contrary, this pretended supe- 
riority of Upper Saxony in purity of language, has been 
rejected, almost unanimously, by the other provinces, and 
not recognised by our most valued authors *. 



* If it be desirable for a language to have a central place, whose usage 
forms its standard (and I am inclined to think that colloquial language, 
and light prose in general, is benefited by it), it can only be such a one 
as forms a rallying point of the polished and learned of the nation, and 
takes the lead in manners and civilization ,• since language is but the 
reflex of national character and manners. But such a national focus 
does not exist in Germany ; and if the want of it is, in some respects, 
disadvantageous, the inconvenience is amply counterbalanced by the 
advantage of the language being thus less exposed to the caprice of 
fashion. This gives to etymology and analogy more weight, the genius 
of the language becomes more fully developed, and its words less liable 
to become degraded and vulgar, from associations of ideas merely acci- 
dental. They thus retain more of their primitiveness and original sim- 
plicity, and become better adapted to poetry and the higher prose ; to 
which the language has, indeed, a natural tendency. 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

The standard of correctness in the German language 
must then be looked for in the usage of the educated classes 
of the whole country ; and what they, or a great majority 
of them, agree in considering as correct and pure, although, 
from local habits, they may not always practically conform 
to it, must be recognised as the rule of the language ; as 
decided usage must form the first law of every tongue. In 
those cases in which the suffrages are divided, or where 
the extent of usage cannot be ascertained, analogy must 
be resorted to as the arbiter : and even in cases where the 
usage of the majority is opposed to analogy, still, if a very 
considerable minority is on its side, such analogy ought 
to be followed. 

5. The German is undoubtedly an original language; 
closely allied to several ancient tongues, particularly with 
the Greek and Latin, not only in its roots, but even in its 
inflections * ; but not derived from any of them. The cir- 
cumstance of the principal accent in German lying always 
on the radical syllable, and the fact of nearly the whole 
rich stock of words in the language being derived regularly, 
and agreeably to simple analogies, from a very small quan- 
tity of roots -j-, are alone sufficient internal evidence of its 
originality. 

In later times, however, especially from about the middle 
of the 17th to the middle of the 18th century, such a mul- 
titude of words, borrowed from the learned and the French 
languages, were introduced wantonly and without the least 
necessity, from mere bad taste and affectation, that there 
were in the writings of those times almost as many foreign 

* The German present tense, for instance, of the verb "to have," 
nearly a thousand years ago, ran thus: frabem, fyabev, frabet, f)abeme:p ? 

fcafcet, fca&ent. See Grimm's 2>eutfd[je ©rammauf. 

f Adelung supposes the whole number of roots not to exceed six 
hundred. 

B 3 



b INTRODUCTION. 

as German words, quite deforming the language, and giving 
to the compositions of that period an uncouth and motley 
appearance. 

An improved taste, however, taught our writers how 
little these foreign phrases accord with the expressive sim- 
plicity of a language, in which every word belongs, as it 
were, to a large aboriginal family, and where the import of 
every word is known and understood, almost at first sight, 
from its analogical formation and strict family resemblance. 
These foreign words have, therefore, for the most part, gra- 
dually become disused, and are replaced by other, genuine 
German words, either existing before, or newly formed. A 
considerable number, however, still remain in the language, 
and are yet used in writing and conversation. These all 
retain something foreign about them, denoting their origin ; 
many are distinguished b'y the pronunciation of their letters, 
some even by their inflections, but most by their accentua- 
tion ; which peculiarities will all be noticed in their proper 
places. 



These few remarks, whilst they elucidate some charac- 
teristic features of the High German, may not be unaccept- 
able to the learner, as a short outline of the history of a 
language so closely allied to the English, — an affinity which 
the student will frequently have occasion to observe in the 
course of the following pages. 



A GRAMMAR 



OF 



THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 



The present Grammar is divided into three parts : viz. 
1. Pronunciation and Orthography*; 2. Etymology; 
3. Syntax. » 

PART I. 
PRONUNCIATION and ORTHOGRAPHY. 

§ 1. OF THE CHARACTERS USED IN GERMAN. 

The characters presented in the following alphabet, are 
used generally in the printing of German books ; although 
many are also printed in Roman type. They are the 
same letters, but improved and simplified, as those for- 
merly in use over the greatest part of Europe, and which 
are known in English under the name of Black letter. 

The letters exhibited in the annexed plate are used by 
the Germans in their handwriting ; but German written in 
the usual English letters is read, without inconvenience, by 
any native. 

* Most of that matter which in English grammars is generally given 
under the head of Prosody, is here comprehended under that of Pro- 
nunciation. A short explanation of German versification will be given 
at the end of the work. 



THE ALPHABET. 











Observe the difference 


Characters. 


Names. 


English. 


between the letters 


21 


a 


ah 


a 


21 and U ; 


% 


b 


bay 


b 


Sand 2? ; 6, band I); 


6 


c 


tsay 


c 


(£ and 6 ; c and e ; 


2> 


& 


day 


d 




<£ 


e 


ay 


e 




8 


f 


ef 


f 


f and f ; 


@ 


8 


g a y 


g 


© and © ; 


•0 


i) 


hah 


h 


I), \) and v ; 


3 


i 


ee 


i 






i 


yot 


J 




£ 


f 


kah 


k 


, jf , 9? and 0? ; 


£ 


i 


el 


1 




93? 


m 


em 


m 


$?and$J; ntandtt>; 


9? 


n 


en 


n 




D 





o 


o 




* 


P 


pay 


P 




Q 


q 


koo 


q 




0? 


r 


err 


r 


r, t and ?. 


© 


N 


ess 


fs 




X 


t 


tay 


t 




u 


u 


oo 


u 




2? 


t? 


fow 


V 




saj 


tt) 


vay 


w 




ae 


1? 


iks 


X 




3 




ypsilon 
tset 


y 

z 





To this Alphabet must be added the following letters : 
d or d, or 6, it or u, % cfr (ch), fc(>, pi), all representing 
simple sounds, although the last four, it will be observed, 
are compound characters. 



§ 2.] VOWELS. 9 

Obs. 1. a, b, U, are, if capitals, often written 21 e, De, Ue (or even Ui); 
and in foreign words and names, a represents ce, and <j, a?/ as @afar, 
sjJ&Otti;?, for Ccesar, Phoenix. Nevertheless they are considered in Ger- 
man as single characters ; and in the dictionaries they are, in respect to 
their alphabetical order, regarded merely as a, 0, H : thus bfc>e stands 
before ober ; 2?Urbe after 2?unb, &c. 

Obs. 2. The character $ is a contraction from fg, as its name (ess tset) 
indicates. In those cases, however, where it stands for )J (see § 24), 
it seems to be a contraction from fip. In German books printed in Ro- 
man characters - $ is mostly represented by fs, and |f by ss ; although 
sometimes ss is also used for fj. 

The following double consonants, the learner will per- 
ceive, are somewhat contracted : Cf, ck; ff,ff; if, SS; ft, St; 

PRONUNCIATION OF LETTERS. 

In German every letter is pronounced, or has some in- 
fluence on the pronunciation (see § 13 and 14); and its 
power or pronunciation may generally be known from its 
name. 

§ 2. OF VOWELS. 

The characters representing simple vowel sounds are 
nine: viz. 

a, a, e, i, c, b, «, it, \). 

51 has always one and the same sound ; namely, that of 
the English a in art, last, or father ; as, $lber, vein; Wax, 
WS; Saben, thread; alt, all; ab, off; tt>a£, 'what. 

$le or a has always the second sound of the German c, 
as explained below, or that of the English ai in air ; ex. 
ttJCtljreilb, during; tacjlic^, daily; .parte, hardness. 

(? has three sounds : viz. 

1.) A slender sound, like that of the English ai in ail, 
fail # , or like the French e ferme. 



* I think I do not mistake in drawing a distinction between the sound of the 
English ai (by whatever letters this sound is represented) when followed by r ; 



10 VOWELS. 

It is pronounced with this sound : 

a.) When it is doubled (cc), or followed by I) ; as in ©ce, 
sea ; $lrmee, army; .qcl^err, to go; 9Mj, roe. 

Except the following words, in which the C of the radical syllable (see 
§ 12) has the following broad sound : fcefehletl, to command; fttipfffyleit. - 
to recommend; fefrletl, to fail; £ef)le, throat ; $$ttfy\, flour ; nefrmen, to 
take ; ffeftlen, to steal,— with the words derived from them ; and most 
of those words in which ee and e& are followed by X ; as, fceye&ven, to 
demand; £jeer, army, &c. &c. 

h.) In the first syllables of the following words : 

. (Seber, cedar. 3'e, ) 9?e#et, rule. 

2)emutf>, humility. $emal§, I ever# ©cene, scene. 

(5ge, harrow. Semanb, somebody. ©d&webetl, Sweden. 

@pfjeu, ivy. Setier, that. @d&lef?en, Silesia. 

(5tt?tg, eternal. 5)?ece, sea-gull. 2Beni<j, little, 

^eber, every. CPeter, Peter. 

and in the accented syllables of substantives terminating in 
eft; as, Xrompcte, trumpet; $ctjUte, pasty, &c. 

Ofo. 1. There are several words in which usage is divided, in respect 
to this vowel, between this and the following broad sound ; so that it is 
difficult to decide which ought to be adopted in these cases. 

2.) A broad and deep sound, like that of the English ai 
in air, fair *, or like the French e ouvert. The corre- 
sponding short sound to this, is that of the English e in bet, 
get, sell, &c, which, in quality, (which alone is under con- 
sideration here,) is exactly the same as ai in air. 

The e has this sound in all the radical syllables not be- 
longing to the preceding rules ; that is 

a.) In the greatest part of those where it is of long quan- 
tity (see § 13); as in BetCtt, to pray ; leBeil, to live. 

b.) In all those, without exception, in which it is of short 

as in air, fare, bear, care, there, where, &c. ; and those cases, where it is not 
followed by that letter; as in ail, fail, fain, day, bay, &c. The difference ap- 
pears to me to be the same as that between the French e and e ; the vowels 
of the former class of words 6ounding like e, those of the latter like e ; thus, 
a pear, a mare, have the same sound as the French pere (father), mere (mother) ; 
the first syllable in dairy is like the French preposition des (from) ; but day 
sounds like the French de (a die. ) 
* See preceding Note. 



§ 2.] VOWELS. * 11 

quantity; i.e. in wjrich it is followed by more than one 
consonant (§ 14) ; as in 25ett, bed; $»ett, skin (just like the 
English bet, fell); $db,Jield; UKtten, to bet. 

3.) An obscure sound, like that of the English e in ham- 
mer or angel. Thus it sounds in almost all servile syllables 
(see § 12): as, fa#et, {he) says; £te&e, love; Wm'titfytt, be- 
trayer; 9?acjel, rcaz7; avBeitete, (he) worked; (>atte, (fo) forf. 

Obs. 2. In the prefixes be and ge, as in ©e6ct, prayer; 25ewet^, proof; 
e has more of its slender sound ; and in the termination en, it is nearly- 
mute, as in English : as, Offett, open; yeffo&len, stolen; like ofpn, gejrofn'tt. 

3 sounds like the English ee, or i in fin, Jill ; as, mif, 
77?^ ; tl;n, AiiWjf bcr 2Me, tffo «>#/,• nnlb, wild; JJinfc, cMd,- 

2)in#, tog. 

has two sounds : viz. 

1.) When it is of long quantity (see § 13), and not fol- 
lowed by v, it has that of the English o in so, vote; as, oBCtt? 
above; fcl)0tt, already. 

2.) When it is of short quantity (see § 14), or followed 
by X, it has that of the English o in God, hot, for ; as, fyoffht, 
to hope; fomWKU, to come ; <&vlb,gold; %Bq\U, wool; X^cr, 
gate; VOX, before; Q{)t, ear. 

Oc or b. There is no sound in the English language 
corresponding with that of this vowel. It is like the French 
ceu in ceuvre ; and is formed by rounding the lips as if to 
pronounce o, and then pronouncing the English a; as, 
6ofe, bad; fybvcn, to hear ; tJbllu), entirely. 

U has the sound of the English oo, or of a in bull, full; 
as, bit, thou (just like the English verb do); Du$C, rest;' 
9lUt^C, rod; .gtttlb, dog. 

Uc or it. This sound, likewise, is not to be found in the 
English language. It has the pow r er of the French u; and is 
formed by rounding the lips as if to pronounce the English 
oo, and then pronouncing the English ee; as, 2}?ut)e, trouble ; 

fallen, to feel; futkn, to fit. 



12 DIPHTHONGS. [§ 3. 

§) has the power of the German i; as, ©t;l6c, syllable; 
($i)p§, plaster. But, except in the diphthongs cp and a\) 
(for which see below), it occurs only in words of foreign 
origin. Compare Observation in § 9, and § 25. 

Observe. The second vowels in aa, CC, 00, tC, are not 
pronounced, but serve merely to lengthen the preceding 
vowels without changing their usual sound # ; as, $aar, 
pair; ©eelc, soul; @ct;ooj?, lap; frte, the; which are pro- 
nounced $ar, (gek, (get; o£ 5 with long vowel quantity; ex- 
cept §CC, fairy ; in which CC is pronounced as two sylla- 
bles, $C=C: — compare also § 11 and Obs. 2 in § 12. 

§ 3. DIPHTHONGS, 

Or two vowel sounds, pronounced so rapidly as to form 
but one syllable, are represented in German by the vowels 
that express their elementary sounds ; and are 
ci, ei>, ai, a\) y an, da, cu. 



en 



(ft) (are all pronounced like the English word eye ; ex. 
$lt i fein, fe; fet;tt, to be; j^aifer, emperor; Wla\), May. 

Ofo. 1. Some provinces pronounce ai with a broader sound than ei 9 
so that the sound of the a is predominant ; which pronunciation is more 
according to its constituent parts, and is considered by some gramma- 
rians more correct. 

5lu is much like the English ou in out ; except that the 
German sound is somewhat broader, the sound of a being 
rather predominant; as, $dU$, house; %Nail$, mouse; lattfcn, 
to run. 

9lett or ait is nearly similar to the English oi in oil, boil; 
only that the German sound approaches in its termination 
somewhat to that of the English oo. Example, .gdttfcr, 
houses; SSattme, trees. 

* These mute vowels, as well as the mute f) (see f) in § 7), will in the fol- 
lowing rules be denominated the lengthening letters or marks of long quantity. 



J 5.] CONSONANTS. — LABIALS. 1 3 

(f U is much like the preceding du, but less broad at 
the beginning of its sound, and rather a little shorter in its 
quantity; as, petite, to-day ; genet 4 , fire. 

Obs. 2. Poets allow themselves such rhymes as ©Itict" and 25licr", $'of)en 
and 2De^en, ©efcaufce and 2Beibe, $euet and (g#lekr ; and according to 
the provincial pronunciation these words rhyme exactly. 

Obs. 3. Qi or Op occurs only in a few proper names, and in the word 
29oi, buoy ; and is pronounced as the English oi. The vowels ui in 2>ttt£- 
bltrg (the name of a town) are pronounced like ii. In the interjections 
pfut,jfe, and fcui (an exclamation of haste), they form a diphthong, 
which is pronounced like the French oui (yes). 

Obs. 4. The learner must not mistake two vowels belonging to dif- 
ferent syllables for a diphthong; see § 11, and Obs. 2 in § 12. 

§4. CONSONANTS 

are divided by grammarians in different ways. 

It will be useful for our purpose to adopt that classifica- 
tion, which divides them according to the organs, by which 
they are chiefly formed ; except I, m, It, V, which we shall 
range separately, under their usual name of Liquids. Ac- 
cordingly, we have the following classification of all the 
consonant characters, whether simple or compound : 

1 . Labials, or letters produced by the lips : 6, p, pi), f, 
t), tt?. 

2. Palaticks (also called Gutturals), or letters formed in 
the palate and throat : c, db, C^, $, Wfo F? cf, ^, j, qtt, y. 

3. Linguals (also called Dentals), or letters formed by 
pressing the tongue against the gums and teeth: fc, t^ti), 

h & f, % f*. 

4. Liquids : (, m, H, X. 

§ 5. LABIALS: 6, p, pl% f, V, tfr 

29, % ty\) 9 and $, are all pronounced as in English : 
fed, by : $eitt, pain; $l;ilofopfS philosopher; fallen, to 
fall. 

$3 however, if it stands after the vowel of the syllable to 
which it belongs, is pronounced like p : thus, £ofc, praise ; 



14 PALATICKS. l§ 6. 

taiib, deaf; @t6fc, pea, are pronounced £op, taup, (frpfe. 
But when by inflection a vowel is annexed, as, fie lo6cn ? 
they praise ; bit XftttBc, the deaf man, it resumes its original 
flat sound. 

Obs. Tt would seem to be an ancient practice in German, as it is in other 
languages, to change the flat sounds into sharp ones, or to pronounce 
them with more pressure, at the end of words ; for in Old German 
we find 6, b, $, f) and v, (which then had the sound of the English v) 
at the end of words, regularly changed into their corresponding sharp 
letters, p, t, t', # and f; which, when by inflection a syllable was annexed, 
became again b, b, g, \), V. Thus they wrote gap, plural yaben ; fcbiet, 

plural fdbieben j Saf, genitive Sages ; 2Dclf, genitive 28efoe$*,* faefj, 

plural fafjeil f . This change of sound of the above letters is no longer 
marked in writing — b, b, Q, i) being now allowed to remain at the end of 
words — but it is still retained in the pronunciation of b, $ and b (see 
y and b in § 6 and 7). The final i), as will be explained in the next sec- 
tion, is now entirely mute. — (In the provincial pronunciation of Upper 
Germany it is yet pronounced with its old guttural sound.) $, on the 
other hand, has altogether disappeared from the end of roots, f having 
usurped its place: as, 2B0lf, genitive SBolffS. 

2?, as its German name indicates, is pronounced likef: 
2?0#el 9 bird; VOX, before — like $0#el, for. 

2$ nearly like the English v, but rather softer; the 
upper teeth must hardly touch the under lips, letting the 
air pass freely between them, without any obstruction ; as, 
^}m, wine ; SBmiU, when. 

§ 6. PALATICKS : f, C&, #& & W, f, cf, I;, j, C|U, £. 

(£ has two sounds : viz. 

1.) That of k, if it stands before a, 0, It, till, or before a 

consonant; as, @ato, (Contract, ©emca, (Client J, &c. — or 

when it ends a syllable; as in SitCCtOV. 

* The student will perceive in this the illustration of the English practice, 
of changing, in the plural of substantives, the final f of the singular into t',- 
as, for instance, wolf, wife, thief; plural wolves, wives, thieves. 

f A pure example of this is yet left in the language, in the word fyocfj, high ; 
of which the d) becomes f), if a vowel of inflexion is added : as, &et f)0f)e, the 
high; fytytt, higher. 

\ Those words which are not translated, are the same in English. 



J. 6.] PALATICKS. 1 5 

2.) That of fc, or the German *, in all other cases ; as in 
&liu§, (Stcero, (Sitrone ; pronounced, Xf bliu3, Xfitfevo, Xfttvcnc. 

Obs.l. It occurs only in words derived from foreign languages. In those 
taken from the French it has, before e and i t the sound of s (see § 10). 

Ql) has two sounds, — a guttural and a palatick sound : 
neither of which is found in English. 

1.) The guttural sound is like ch in the Scotch word 
Loch. Its description is difficult : it is a strong aspiration 
obstructed by an approximation of the tongue to the back 
part of the roof of the mouth, but without closely touching 
it; as this would produce an admixture of the k sound. 

(&\) has always this sound if preceded by a, C, It, alt ; as, 
©act), rivulet; £oc|j, hole; SSud), book; attcfj, also. 

2.) The palatick sound is the same as that which the 
Scotch give to ch and gh in the words fecht, light, &c. It is 
produced by bringing the middle of the tongue near, but 
not quite close to, the roof of the mouth, and forcing the 
breath through the narrow passage thus formed ; care being 
taken that no admixture of sh takes place by bringing the 
tongue too near the teeth. 

(Sfy is pronounced with this sound whenever it is not im- 
mediately preceded by the above-mentioned vowels, a, c, 
it, and ait; as in ntidb? me; red;t, right; reidb, rich; gac&er, 
fan; 33itdber 3 hooks s SDidbdbcn, girl. 

Qfy at the beginning of words, (where, with the exception 
of the four first words of the following examples, it occurs 
only in words of foreign origin,) sounds like k, if it is, fol- 
lowed by a, 0, It, or r; as in @t;ttr, choice; @[jmfitv|T, elec- 
tor; QfyaXWOd)?, Passion-week ; Sljarftettag, Good Friday ; 
(IljOV, chorus; Character; @i;vifl, Christian, &c. In other 
.cases it has its palatick sound ; as, @l;i;ntie, chymistry ; 

K^irui'gul, surgeon : dljina, &c. 

Obs. 2. In words originally French, # has invariably the sound of the 
English sh (see § 10). t 

g^5 is pronounced like x 9 if the % belongs to the same 
c2 



16 PALATICKS. [§ 6. 

root; or, in other words, d) before a radical £, (§12) of the 
same word is pronounced like k; as in fcdfj3, six ; ttmdbfeil? 
to grow j ^ad)^, badger; £(Xd)$, salmon, &c. — which are 
pronounced fef$, nmffen, QaU, £aU. But if the part of the 
word preceding $ forms a word of itself, and the $ is merely 
a servile letter, or belongs to another word with which 
the former is compounded, or contracted, d) has its usual 
sound; as, btv Sacl$, of the roof; 9?eicl^#raf, count of the 
empire ; \)td)% highest ; nac&ff, next ; ttwdbfam, watchful ; 
butcfc^ (contracted from btttdb bciv), through the. 

© has the hard sound of the English g in give ; as, 
©olb, gold; (Slag, glass; geqe&en, given. 

At the end of words, or after the vowel of its syllable, it 
is pronounced by some like f — (in the same manner as the 
final 6 is sounded like p, and the final fc> like t : compare 
Obs. in the last section.) More generally, however, the 
final # is pronounced like d) in either of its sounds (only 
somewhat softer), according to the vowels by which it is 
preceded, as described in the foregoing page; as^ X&fo 
day ; cunt}, eternal s ;©£$, way — which are pronounced 
like XctcJ), ettncfc SBeclJ. But when by inflexion a vowel 
is annexed, as be3 Xa#e£, of the day ; bCV &oigc 9 the eter- 
nal, $ ought to resume its usual hard sound. Yet, even 
then, it is pronounced by many Germans with the sound 
of d) ; and is found in poetry to rhyme with final syllables 
whose consonant is cj)*. 

Obs. 3. Some of our best grammarians are of opinion, that, as 
usage varies in the pronunciation of the final <j, it ought to retain its 
more general sound and therefore be pronounced at the end as at the 
beginning of a word ; except where followed by f or g ; as in $af!iyf eit, 
ability; ttH'yjflC&eit, to go away; in which case it must be pronounced 
like cf), as it otherwise could not so well be heard. The learner can 
therefore make no palpable mistake by pronouncing the final g in Ger- 
man as in English : yet, it must be repeated, this is not the common 
usage, particularly if it is preceded by a vowel. 

* 2(d) netfle 
2)u ©djmerjenSreic&e. — Goth©. 



§ 6.] PALATJCKS. 17 

MO. should be pronounced with a nasal sound, exactly as 
in English : ex. 0un#, ring ; ©efan#, song; .£>offhim& hope. 

Obs. 4. The g iu these cases has an imperfect sound in both lan- 
guages, which it retains in German even if followed by a vowel; thus 
fangen, to catch; (anger, longer, are read like fang-en, latlg'.efj and 
%\\\%t\% finger, rhymes exactly with the English singer. 

Obs. 5. If, in compounds, n and g belong to different roots, it is hardly 
necessary to mention that they do not form a nasal sound, but each is 
pronounced separately with its usual sound; as in angcfjen, to begin; 
Ungtticf, misfortune: read, amge&en, UmglUCf. 

Obs. 6. In Upper and Lower Saxony, and in some other province?, 
I1g at the end of a word is pronounced like nk. In other parts, par- 
ticularly in the south of Germany, it is pronounced as described above : 
usage being divided, this latter pronunciation has been adopted by some 
grammarians as more consonant with analogy; and it is also preferable 
for the sake of distinction; as many words of different import, that are 
distinguished in spelling merely by the final g and k, would by the for- 
mer pronunciation have no distinction whatever in sound : thus fcfrlang, 
devoured, would sound like fdjlanf, slender; rang, rang, like OuUlf, trick; 
fling, caught, like %M, finch ; f$rt> ang, swung, like &fywa\tfjest ; fang, 
sung, like failf, sunk. 

R and cf are pronounced as in English; as, battfcn> 
to thank ; faW, came ; ©acf 9 sack.— j? before n is not mute 
in German ; thus in j?nic, knee, both f and it are sounded. 

,p at the beginning of the radical syllable is always 
aspirated ; as, .j$anb, hand ; fiailv, house ; OcljanMlT, to 
treat ; #d;brt, heard. But after the vowel of the syllable 
to which it belongs, it is mute, and serves merely to lengthen 
the preceding vowel; as, ©cljul), shoe; fyl),- saw ; \ai)nu 
lame ; (joM, hollow; &c. (see § 13). 

If the final I) is followed by a vowel of inflexion or deri- 
vation — as in Qil)iX\, to go ; &d)id)C, shoes; tfietyifcO, beastly 
—grammarians say it should be slightly aspirated; but 
this is far from being generally observed. 

.0 in xty and tf) is not pronounced ; as in OWjcfce, road ; 
Xfyat, deed. 

3 before a vowel has the consonant sound of the En- 
c 3 



18 UNGUALS. [§ 7. 

glish j/ (as in yes or you)-, as, ja, yes s ^aljt 4 , #<?ar,- jet^t, 
now. 

Q is found only in association with it, as in English, 
and pronounced like fw,' as in Quelle, well; qucilen, to 
torment. 

3c is pronounced as the English a:: $i$i, witch; 2)taj,u-- 
tllilian, a proper name. 

§7. UNGUALS: If, t, tl), fa & for 3, fp, ft, g, ftf> 

2) has the same sound as in English ; but at the end 
of words it is pronounced like t; thus tmb, and; ^rofc, 
bread, sound like urtt, 2?V0t (compare Obs. in § 5). 

X sounds like the English t ; but before i, followed by 
another vowel, it sounds like ts, or like the German £ ; thus 
Station, nation ; ^altttatien, Dalmatia, are pronounced 
Statjtou, Saimatjtcn. 

XI) sounds merely like t (the sound of the English th 
does not exist in German); thus, Xl)tit,act; X^catCt, theatre; 
V0t£, red, are pronounced Sat, Xeater, tot. The (j in this 
case, has, however, in words originally German, the effect 
of lengthening the vowel of the syllable (compare § 13). 

3 and £ are both pronounced liks ts; thus %it\xt 9 tin ; 
9?€t^, charm; (gig, seatf, are pronounced Xfin, 9u'it$, ©it& 

© at the beginning of words, or between two vowels, is 
pronounced softer than the English s, though not quite as 
soft as the English z; as in facjen, to say; foil, shall; itteife, 
wise; .jfjjafe, hare. But if it is preceded by a consonant, as 
in (£r6fe, pea,- SKatOfel, riddle; — or if it is doubled, as in 
^Bafier, water; Oiofje, horses; — it is pronounced with the 
hard sound of the English 5 or the German %. The final 
§, (for this character is used only at the end of words or syl- 
lables,) as in $au$ 9 house; be£ .fwilfe3, of the house ; ^t\^ 
{Jeit, wisdom, is generally pronounced also with the hard 
sound of the English s ; but several of our present gramma- 



§ 7.] LINGUALS. 19 

rians disapprove of it, asserting, that the final I, if preceded 
by a vowel, should have the soft sound, as at the beginning 
of a word. 

@p and ©t. The fin these letters is, at the beginning 
of roots, pronounced like sh or the German fcf) (explained 
in the next page) ; thus fprincjen, to spring; jtdkn, to place; 
entfMkn, to disfigure; ©ejtalt, figure, are pronounced 
shpringen, shtellen, entshtellen, geshtalt*. But whenever 
fp or ff occur after a vowel in the same syllable, or if (t are 
letters of inflexion (see § 12), as in 6efre, best; fJBefpe, >wasp; 
$ilY% prince ; (}bc{)jfan3» at the utmost, they are pronounced 
as in English. 

Obs. 1. In the words ©flare or ©ClflOf, slave; (Sfelett, skeleton; 
©fttje, sketch; and @mctva#fr, emerald, the f is also very frequently 
pronounced like the English s£. 

Ofo. 2. Many Germans pronounce also the final ft; of the root, if 
preceded by X — as in JSUvfft?, brush; $iir|r, prince — like sht : but this 
pronunciation, although adopted by some grammarians, is now rejected 
by the best usage. But a still more decided provincialism is the pro- 
nunciation of f like sh in the final fp or ft, if it is not preceded by r; 
as in befte, best; 2Befpe, Wasp—a pronunciation which prevails in 
some southern parts of Germany. 

On the other hand, in Westphalia and in some parts of Lower Saxony, 
f in fp and ft, whether at the beginning or at the end of a word, is pro- 
nounced with its usual hissing sound ; a mode which is strongly recom- 
mended by several writers, as mere consistent with orthography, and as 
being softer. 

But as it is not the province of a work 'like the present to propose 
grammatical laws, but merely to record those existing, it may be suffi- 
cient to observe, that orthography can be appealed to only where 
usage is uncertain : but this is not the case in the present instance. 
In all Germany, in good society as well as on the stage, with the, 
comparatively speaking, inconsiderable exception of the places just 
referred to, f before p and t, at the beginning of words, is pronounced 
like sh, as described above ; which must therefore be considered the 
more legitimate pronunciation. It is likewise deemed so by most of our 
grammarians. Klopstock the poet, who has written some grammatical 
essays, even proposed to write fefy instead of f in the cases alluded to i 

* Elegant speakers appear to soften this sound into the English zh, or s in 
pleasure, and pronounce z/qmngen, zhtellen, &c. 



20 LIQUIDS. [§ 8. 

well knowing that orthography is but subservient to the general pro- 
nunciation : and it has been well observed by Adelimg, that, if any local 
peculiarity, which happens to be supported by orthography, is to be pre- 
ferred to general usage, theWestphalian pronunciation of f$, in which 
f and tit) are both distinctly heard, and the Austrian and Bavarian pro- 
nunciation of ie — of which they make a diphthong consisting of the 
sounds of i and e— ought likewise to be adopted, in preference to the 
general usage of all the other parts of Germany. — See also Introduc- 
tion, page 4, and § 26, obs. 2. 

j? has always the sound of the English 5 in so ; ex. 
WCifJ, white; ®xofjz, greatness. 

©db has the sound of the English sh ; as ©dbailbc, shame s 
2)Ufdb 3 bush — pronounced Shande, Bush. Yet it must be ob- 
served, that the Germans form this sound nearer the gums 
than the English do, and more with the tip of the tongue ; 
which gives it, if I am not mistaken, a shade of difference. 

Obs. 3. If a radical final 5 is followed by 6) of a servile syllable, and, 
consequently, * and dt? belong to two different syllables, — as is always 
the case in diminutives formed by the annex $flt, from substantives 
ending in §, — each retains its usual sound; namely, i its hissing, and 
cb its palatick sound: and S$ must therefore not be mistaken for fcfo, 
which latter always represents the sound of the English sh ; ex. 
©M'yCfren, a little glass; *jail$C&eH, a little house; (from ©fa$, 0ail6) — 

read, ©la^cfKn, £att$*#en. 

§ s. LIQUIDS : I, it!, It, X. 

These letters are all pronounced as in English, except v ; 
which, both at the beginning and at the end of words, is 
pronounced, as in other continental languages, with a strong 
vibration of the tip of the tongue, and sounds rather rougher 
than the English r, which is formed with the middle of the 



The following table, by showing how the English sounds 
are represented by German letters, will at once recapitulate 
the preceding rules, and impress still more on the learner 
the power of the German letters. 



§8.] 



COMPARATIVE TABLE. 



21 



The 
a in 
a — 
a — 


English 

bare is 

ale (see note 
far 
• all 
■ at 

mere 

met 
fine 
fill 

hole 
for 

do 

bull 

uniform 

hut 

oil 

out 


rei 
P- 


)resented by 
9).... 


The German 

ii or e ... 
eeoreft ... 
a 

i or ie 

c 

rioret) ... 

i 




u 
u 
iii 

by an 
by au 


.. thus bar or frer 
eel or e&l 
far 


a — 






a — 














uiir cr niter 


e*— 






wett 


i — 






fein 

... w 

fcr 
bit 


<t- 
















.. nearly 
.. nearly 


« + — 




butt 


■»+ 




junifcrm 






o i — 

ou — 




aul 

aut 



The consonant sounds are, for the greatest part, repre- 
sented by the same characters in both languages ; except 
the following : 



The English 

soft ch.... 
j and the ) 
soft g * 

7 

s 

sh 



is represented 
in German by 
.....tf# 



■f or D 
f 



is representee? 
in German by 



The English 

th in think ) 
and th in that S ' ' 

v nearly by W 

w 

x r or d)i 

y'wyes j(jef) 



From this it will be seen, that there are three English 
vowel and five consonant sounds which do not exist in 
German : on the other hand, the German sounds b, it, and 
both sounds of the d), do not exist in English. 



* The corresponding short sound of a in bare. 
f The corresponding short sound of e in mere, 
j The corresponding short sound of o in da. 



22 FOREIGN WORDS. [J 9. 



PRONUNCIATION OF FOREIGN WORDS. 

§ 9. I. Proper names and other words derived from languages little 
known, such as the Oriental languages, as well as all Scriptural names, 

—as, ^acob, Sfaaf, Jotbait, Algebra, %imanacb, 3J?ofc&ee, mosque; bet 

(Supfytat, the Euphrates, &c— are all pronounced according to the Ger- 
man mode : that is, the letters have the same power as in German words. 

2. Words and names derived from the learned languages are, like- 
wise, generally pronounced according to the German mode, and accord- 
ing to the rules laid down under the letters c, #, t and p : ex. ©c&C> 

laftifer, @d&i$matifer, STOmfcoIogte, 3lttfpicien, 2lc(jiHe$,3uliu$ (Safav— 

pronounced Sholastiker, &c. 

Obs. $) in words derived from the Greek, as <Si)(6c, syllable, 9Sfj»)ftf, should* 
according to some grammarians, be pronounced like ii, this being its original 
pronunciation in Greek. But the more general practice is to pronounce it 
every where like a German i. 

3. Names and words expressive of things peculiar to a nation or place, 
taken from modern European languages, should retain their original 

pronunciation : thus the English words, ©fmfefpeare, $oroe, (Samfrribge, 
Cabp, CorbsSKapor, ©etttieman, &c— the French, $oufTeau, 3We= 
lieu, (Sfwtillon, <5en$ b'armes, &c— the Italian, Boccaccio, @(jioggia, 

6ici0bec, (iicerone, &c. — and so also names of other nations, ought to be 
pronounced as they are in their respective languages. But it may easily 
be supposed that this rule cannot always be strictly observed, particu- 
larly with respect to such languages as are less generally known. 

Those few names of foreign places that have undergone in German a 
change in their orthography, are, of course, pronounced like German 
words; as, Me S^emfe (the Thames), Ci)Ta6on(Lisboa)3?airan&(Milano)9 
S^eapel (Napoli), STOoffflU (Moskwa), ^opetlfwyen (Kiobenhavn). 



§ 10. The words borrowed from the French being rather numerous 
and in frequent use in German, both in writing and conversation, and 
many of them having been more or less germanized, their pronuncia- 
tion requires some more detailed explanation. 

I . The vowels are generally pronounced as in French : namely, 
i) at and ei like a ; as, portrait; SSeuteille, bottle. 2) eil like ii ; as, 
3Deferteur, deserter; (Souvamuv, governor— except Bieutenant,>hich 

is pronounced Ct'Utnant. 3) au and eau like ; as, G&attfTee, cause- 
way ; bureau, office. 4) OU like U; as, SambOttr, drummer. 5) M 
nearly like ca ; as, (S&amotS. 6) u like U ; as, 3?et)UC a review. 7) The 
termination ;ier retains in the words CS^CCaltcr ; 'Douamer, custom-house-, 
officer; 25atiquier, ban/cer; Metier, profession; 2?anqiierOWter, bankrupt^ 






§ 11.] SYLLABICATION OF FOREIGN WORDS. 23 

and perhaps in a few other words, its original pronunciation — namely, 
like the English word yea : but in most others it is pronounced in Ger- 
man like the English eer ; as, Dfftcier, Courier, ©renabier, &c. &c. 

2. The consonants, too, have nearly the same power as in French : 
consequently, we pronounce 1.) c, and c before t or i, like s; as, $flpOtt, 
shape; %ax\it, actress ; #avce ; (§lacis. 2.) ft) like the English^; 
as, Chicane, chicanery ; @l;arlatan, empyric. 3.) j, and g before e or t, 
like the English s in pleasure; as, ^alOllften, Venetian blinds ; ^Journal; 

fage; Stogie; Orange; Ocnie, genius; enliven, *o <?Hg«g<?, &c. 
4.)qulike^; as,3J?avqueur, marker; (Sttquette ; 3ftavqui$; &c. 5.) a 

preceded by i (in French / mouille) is generally pronounced like the 
German rj; as, jiBataiflcn, battalion; 3J?e&aifle, wtfrfa/; 2)ittet. 6.) gn 
like the German nj ; as, (Sompagnott, companion; &bampa$Mt, cham- 
paigne; &c. Except @ompagnie, company, which is pronounced CW- 

3. The French nasal sounds are also generally retained in German j 

as, 2Sa|fin, basin; (goufin ; diligence ; $om6arbement; 2>etac&cment. 

Except Scmpliment and the termination -aM, which are pronounced 
as in German words; as, galant; Cf) a rm a 11 1, charming; intereffant, iw- 
teresting. 

4. Most final letters which are mute in French remain so in German ; 
as, ^epOt; ^abOt, frill; Oilier, dinner; ©OUper, supper; @0mmi$, 
cleric ; £o#t$, lodging; @0rp£. Except 1.) The terminations sat, -et 
and -rb, which are all sounded in German ; as, ©Ol bat, soldier; (Cabinet ; 
25iftiU'b, billiards; $(cC0rb, an agreement. 2) The above-named termina- 
tions -lev and ;£tM ; as, Dffktev and cfmvmatU. 3.) The final e, which 
is also generally sounded j as, $a#e; Soufine, female cousin; $tf; 
rabe; &c. 

5. If the expression consists of more than one word ; as, ,D?fnbc^P0U5, 
Xete^tete, 2?i&a*»i$, ^a^be^beur, &c it must always be pronounced 
exactly as in French. 

6. Those foreign words in German that exist both in Latin and French 
with no other change than the omission of the Latin termination, are 
pronounced, like other Latin words, in the German mode, even if used 
in a new and unclassical acceptation ; as, ein ©etteval, a general; ein 
^Ctjor, a major ; Ctll £Keyiment, a regiment, &c. 



§11. In foreign words, the original division of syllables 
must be retained : thus, mtfFiren, to succeed; mil, real; 
rem|f ntiven ; 9utin ; 3efuit, are read re=ufTiverr, ve-ell, tc^itifta^ 
tirett, run*?* &c. It must therefore be observed : 

1. The terminations ;ie, Mx\, -Mr, =UCtt, and ?een, of foreign 



24? CLASSIFICATION OF SYLLABLES. [§ 12. 

words, which are germanized from the dissyllable Latin 
terminations -ia, -ice, -ii, -ea, -ua, form two syllables 
(with the accent on the antepenultimate, except -ecu, which 
has the accent on the penultimate): ex. ^amilk, family ; 
©ra^te, grace ; .giffow, history; 3)?aterie, matter; ^cflie, 
beast ; ©lorie, glory ; .gojrte, the host ; 3)iM1tte, mummy ; 
©tltbien, studies; %txkn, vacation; ©pnmajien, gymnasiums ; 
9?attttalien, natural curiosities ; ©alien, genii; tyatXifitV, pa- 
trician; ^nbttnbuen, individuals; SLx)iiix\>lyceums ; 3)?aufolcen, 
mausoleums — read, %am\li'^ s ©ra'^ue, &c. being derived from 
the Latin wordsfamilia, materia, studia, genii,ferice, &c. &c. 

2. But if the words ending in ie exist also in the French 
language with that termination, these vowels form but one 
accented syllable, as in French; probably because they came 
through the medium of that language into the German ; 
as, $l)ilofoptn'e. Xfreolo^i'e, Xbeori'e, &c. . In the plural, the 
termination cieil forms always two syllables; as, Xt)eOff=Cn: 
— compare § 23. In a few words, however, usage varies 
between this and the preceding mode ; as, ^owbbf C, @ere= 
mcnfe ; or, j?omb'bt=e, (Semno'llUe. The last word is, in the 
compound Qteveffionievimeiflcr, master of ceremonies, always 
pronounced deremo'vtuevr. 

3. The terminations -Mx\ in the names of countries, and 
MX in those of their inhabitants, are also dissyllables ; as, 
©patlten, Spain; jtalien, Italy; $tjl'en, Asia; ©cbkjiCH, Si- 
lesia; ^ritamiien, Britain; ©pamer, Spaniard; ©dblejter, 
Silesian , £acebetttOilier, Lacedemonian, &c. — read, @pa'tti=en, 
&c. 

§ 12. ETYMOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF SYLLABLES. 

Before we proceed to quantity and accent, it will be ex- 
pedient first to explain the nature of what are called the ra- 
dical and servile syllables, — a distinction which is applica- 
ble to the syllables of every simple word of more than one 
syllable, and to which allusion has been already made in 
the preceding pages, 



§ 12.] OF SYLLABLES. 25 

1. The root or radical syllable (for it consists always of 
one syllable,) does not mean here the primitive word, or the 
parent of derivatives, but that syllable which contains the 
principal import of the word, or denotes a clear meaning of 
itself. Thus the first syllables of writing, written, writer, 
are roots, because they all, although each with a different 
modification, import the fundamental idea of expressing 
notions by means of letters. Also all monosyllables, as 
see,Jiee, high, sight, height, must, in opposition to servile 
syllables, be considered as roots or radical syllables. 

2. Servile syllables we shall call all those which have no 
clear import of themselves, but merely serve to modify the 
root. Thus the second syllables in writing and writer 
express mere accidents of the root or principal idea, and 
are therefore servile syllables. 

The terms radical and servile are also applied to letters ; 
namely, those which belong to the root of a word are called 
radical, and the remainder, servile letters. 

3. The servile syllables may be subdivided, according as 
they are prefixed or annexed to the root, into prefixes and 
annexes (or suffixes). In bespoken, for instance, be is the 
prefix, en the annex, and spok the root. The prefixes in 
German are 6e, erttp, CHt, er, gc, fCV and ^cr. 

The principal annexes are bat, C^en, be, e, Ct (or et;) 5 el, 

eln, em, en, enb, er, evn, e£, efr, et, Ijaft, l?ett, icfr, icl)t, ig, ing, 
if$, t'cit, let (or lei;), letn, lid), ling, nig, fal, fam, febaft, fel, 
te, tl)um, irng, fig. 

4. Another subdivision of servile syllables may be made 
into syllables of inflexion, — that is, such as are added to 
words in their declension, or conjugation, to express num- 
ber, person, time, or other accidents; — and into syllables of 
derivation, — that is, such by which words are formed from 
others. Thus the second syllables in the words glasses, 
wanted, richer, are syllables of inflexion ; but the second 
syllables in writer, friendship, lovely, are syllables of deri- 
vation. 



25 CLASSIFICATION OF SYLLABLES. [$ V£. 

In the preceding list of servile syllables, the prefix $c 
and the annexes e, em, en, ent>, er, Cs, eft, et, serve also as 
syllables of inflexion. 

5. Each simple word * has a root ; it may have many 
annexes, but can have no more than one prefix: conse- 
quently, the root is always the first syllable if the word has 
no prefix, and the second, if it has one. 

Obs. I. In a few words beginning with re, tX, ge, &c. ; as in teten, 
to pray ; geben, to give ; ei'ben, to inherit ; (F'rbe, earth ; 25ef»?n, broom ; 
b\C ©eyenb, the country or neighbourhood ; yefrent, yesterday, &c. these 
syllables are not prefixes, but belong to the root (and have therefore the 
accent, see § 15); which may always be known from the circumstance, 
that the second syllable in such words, with the exception of the two 
last examples, always terminates, if not declined or conjugated, in a 
single e, or in fit ; — terminations in which no root ends but the words 
wen, whom, and ben, the ; and, therefore, as the second syllable is not 
the root, the first must be so, according to the preceding rule. 

Obs. 2. A servile vowel occurring before or after a radical vowel, 
must, in the pronunciation, not be joined with the latter into one syl- 
lable : thus keUttfye'lUn, to judge; beef)ren, to honour; getrvet, mistaken; 
gCf Vet, inherited ; fie fcbtten, they cried ; bZy&ti^iOfihelake, must be 

read te^urthtilen, &e=e&ren, yedrret, ge=ercr, f$ri>en* <&e*e$. (Compare 

§ 23, remark 2.) 

Obs. 3. It may not be improper to notice here, that if a word is to 
be divided into syllables (for instance, at the end of a line), the prefix 
is separated from the root, but not always the annex ; for if the latter 
begins with a vowel, the radical consonant that immediately precedes 
it, is joined to it ; as, r-e^ten, (§pra*fee, vaften, famp*fen, Scu&ftfW- 
Compounds, however, must always be divided according to their com- 
ponent parts; as, ^Dlinb^rSt, surgeon; (See-yraj, sea-weed. 

* The expression simple word is used in contradistinction to compound ; 
and mav be either a primitive, as man, hate; or a derivative, as manly, manli- 
ness, hater. A compound consists of two or more words, each separately cur- 
rent in the language ; as, manhater, gentlemanly ; or, at least, having in its 
present use a clear and distinct import of itself. This latter is the case with the 
inseparable particles ux, primitive ; ti\,arch; nup, mis; and the privative particle 
tin, un, which, having a clear import of themselves, are all roots, and therefore 
distinguished from the mere prefixes £>e, ent, &c. although they are found only 
in compounds. The simples of which a compound consists, retain in the com- 
position the nature of their syllables ; thus the first and last syllables of 
"Jftonjenge&et, morning-prayer, are roots, and the second and third, servile 
syllables; because the word is compounded of ^TCorgen, which consists of a 
root and an annex, and ©eOet, which consists of a prefix and a root. 



§ 13.] VOWEL QUANTITY. 27 

VOWEL QUANTITY. 

A vowel sound may be relatively long or short; — that is, 
the voice rests either longer upon it, and thus protracts it, 
or hastens quickly over to the next letter : thus the vowels 
in the English words, car, feel, fool, are long ; and those 
in carry, fill, full, are their corresponding short vowels. 
And so in the German words, laljm, lame; J)ct, hither ; 
Dfen, oven ; fufylen, to feci, the quantity of the radical 
vowels is long ; but OattMl, lamb; .getT, master; offer!, open ,- 
fallen, to fill, have short vowels. 

From these examples, which might be multiplied very 
considerably, it may also be seen that many words, other- 
wise alike in their pronunciation, are distinguished merely 
by the quantities of their vowels. 

Each vowel sound is used with either quantity ; — i. e. in 
some words it is long, in others short ; except the first 
sounds of and e, which are always of long quantities; 
and which, it would appear, cannot be pronounced purely 
without being somewhat protracted. 

Obs. The learner will perceive that the question is here merely of 
vowel, and not of syllabic, nor of metrical, quantity. A syllable may be 
long merely by the multiplicity of its consonants, although its vowel be 
short. Thus swift and ivealth, in which the vowel sounds are short, 
require as much time to pronounce as sweet and wall, which have long 
vowel sounds. Metrical quantity depends, in German, chiefly on the 
emphasis or importance of the syllable, as will be explained at the end 
of the work. 

§ 13. Of long quantity are: — 

1.) The vowels ad, ee, 00 and ie, (see page 12,) and all 
vowels that are followed by f) or tl) in the same syllable, 
or are preceded by tl) in the same syllable; as, ^lutiU'C, 
goods, ware; ©cele, soul ; ©djOOf?, lap ; Oircfc, giant ; lal)m, 
lame; fetyr, very; ii)i],him; Oi)X, ear ; Ul;r, watch; .noble, 
cavern ; fttl)l, cool ; tljtm, to do ; Xl)iir, door ; VOtl), red. 

2.) The vowels that are at the end of a syllable, or are 
D 2 



28 VOWEL QUANTITY. [§ 14*. 

followed by a single consonant in the same syllable ; as, 
bu, thou; tt>0, where; JtJCH, whom; Oiofe, rose; ©cfcafren, 
damage ; fcfrbn, beautiful; in which the radical vowels are 
all long. 

Except, a.) The following particles and pronouns, the vowels of which 
are all short: ab,off; an, to; am, at the; km, (I) am; b\$, until; ka$, 
the; bd, of the; t$,it; fwt, has; in, in ; \m,inthe; man, one; mit, 
with; \\m, about; VCn, of; VCm, of the; lt>e#, away (but in the sub- 
stantive ber 2Beg, the way, e is long); Wtber, against; wa$, what; gum 
and jur, to the. 

b.) The following few compounds, in which the first syllable is short : 
$a^§,duke; fiexbeXQC, shelter, habitation ; Urtfcetl, judgment ; $0Vtf>eif, 
advantage ; tuellettfjt, perhaps ; and probably a few others. 

c.) The vowels e and t in syllables of inflexion, which are all short, 
although not followed by a double consonant; as, btftyxtlbtt (he) de- 
scribes; gebltlbig, patient; PCrgtifren, to pardon. 

§ 14. Of short quantity are: — 

1.) All vowels without exception that are followed by a 
double consonant; as, ivern, if; DfofTe, horses ; bcffcn, to 
hope; ©dfra§, treasure ; (£vfe, corner, (Compare § 24-, 
rule 2.) 

2.) Also the vowels that are followed by two or more 
different consonants in the same syllable ; as, redbt, right ; 
(Bebulb, patience; f often, to cost; ftunfi, art; Wa$$, wax; 
•JDC^e, witch (j? being considered a double consonant). 

Except the following words, the radical vowels of which are all long, 
although followed by two consonants; tyb\?X, eagle; 2(rt, manner; 
)8ax5 or 2)arfcb*, perch (a fish) ; 2>art, beard; 29'crfe, exchange ; 2>0r&, 
board; ZBxatffyt, tenor-violin ; Qxbe, earth; ?X\X, first ; $CX\'e,heel; (§e.- 
tlirt, &>*A; J^arg, rcm'»; ^evb, hearth; pexbt, flock ; £)Uften, cough; 
Jvlofrer, convent; &xeb$,crab; J\Y6$ (only found in compounds); 5)?agt). 
waitf; SJiOnb, wzoorc; SRb'rfer, mortar; mbU, besides ; Dbft, fruit ; D\iexn 
Easter; tyftxb, horse; X0\l(n, to roast; ©cfrutfev, shoemaker ; ©tfwarte 
sward; <SCI)rvexX,sivo?*d; ft eXv, continually; XCbt,dead; %X0ft, consolation; 
"B^X, governor ; $)ax%e,wart ; Wnfti, desert ; gart, terceter. 

Ofo. 1. @£ and fd), although now representing simple sounds, mostly 
render their preceding vowels short ; as in frecfr, impudent ; ©arlie, thing ; 






§ 15.] THE ACCENT. 29 

Mfd? 9 rash; $tOf$,frog. Except 25 Utt),book; btafcft, thrashed; fllicfrcn, 
to <ws<? / fcod), AigA (but in JpCCl^eit, wedding, it is short) ; £wlKtt, c«&<? ; 
Gdimacfr, disgrace; ^prache, language; fUCt)Cn, to ^?<?/c; Xlld?, c/o^ ; 
WUfdb, washed. — ]? $ does not stand for f$ (see § 24), it is a simple con- 
sonant, and the preceding vowel is therefore long; as in, ©rb'ffe, great- 
ness ; $11$, foot. 

Obs. 2. The long quantity of the radical vowel cannot be affected by 
a syncope : as, gefcbt, praised; ev fagt, he says; for gelcbft, faqet — or 
by a consonant that belongs to the following annex ; as, 3?abdK!t, a 
little wheel ; SrUbfaf, affliction; in all which words the vowel remains 
long because in the root it is followed by one consonant only. 



§ 15. THE ACCENT, on SYLLABIC EMPHASIS. 

Every word of more than one syllable, has one of them 
always pronounced with more emphasis or stress than the 
rest; which syllabic emphasis is generally called the ac- 
cent : thus the first syllable in harmony, the second in har- 
monious, and the third in overact, are uttered with more 
stress, and are therefore said to have the accent. 

The German follows the most simple and natural law in 
its accentuation ; it lays the accent, in all words originally 
German, on the most important syllable, namely on the root; 
and in compounds, on the root of the first component part, 
that commanding most attention (compare § 19). Now, the 
root, as we have seen, (§ 12, rule 5,) being in German always 
the first syllable, except in words with prefixes, we can lay 
down the following simple rule, which comprehends by far 
the greatest part of the whole stock of the language, 
namely : 

German words of more than one syllable without prefixes, 
have the accent on the first syllable ; but those beginning with 
any of the seven prefixes, 6c, ent, imp, Cr, $e, W, and $X, have 
it on the second syllable. (For the accent of words derived 
from foreign languages, see § 20, rules 1 and 2.) 

Ex. U'e&en, to love ; U'ebttcrs lovely ; U'cfceti&tmrfcng, amiable; 

£t'e6en»tt?UV&icjfcit, amiableness; 6dfc6t, beloved; gt'btt, give 
(from $e'6etT, to give) ; @c6e't, prayer (from (je'tetl, to pray) ; 

d 3 



30 THE ACCENT. [§ 16. 

De'lBaum, olive tree; SBau'm'ol, olive oil; Seu'tttjdUw^fraft, 

the power of judging ; /jto'cf 6ltnfc>, sftw £ZzW. 

In simple words t;nere are no exceptions to this rule but 
the word te6e'nbt$ ? alive (from le'6en, to live), and some 
words with foreign terminations, which terminations take 
the accent, according to the tendency of foreign words to 
accentuate the last syllable (see § 20). These are 

1.) Verbs terminating in teren (or imi) ; as, futfcju'cren? 
to drive; fjaufi'eren, to hawk; l)alhi'm\h to halve; fya$m\h 
to take a walk ; 6ud)j?a6t'eren, to spell ; &c. &c. 

2.) Substantives with the termination ei* (or ep); as, 
©dbmetdbelei', flattery ; 9?aferei', frenzy : .geucbdef, hypo- 
crisy ; &c. &c. 

3.) The following substantives : 39lumi'j?j florist; $CiY~- 
feni'tt, harper; 3)?0ra% morass ; Ciefcra'nt, contractor; 
©lafu'r, glazing ; and the proper names 2?erli'w, ©tetti'lT, 

j?uftri' it, and .gamio'uer. 

The compounds, however, present a considerable number of excep- 
tions : viz. of words in which the accent does not rest on the first, but 
on the second component part. These exceptions may, most naturally 
and conveniently, be classed under the three principal parts of speech ; 
namely, nouns, verbs, and particles. 

§16. Of nouns, both substantives and adjectives, are excepted : 

1. All compounds beginning with all or aller; as, allttia'd?tty, af- 
mighty; altta'gltdE), daily; allma'frlty, by degrees; aUerli'ebfr, charming; 
alkxbt'ft,bestofall, &c. But WUmadpt, omnipotence; and a'WtfitmW, 
universal, have the accent oa the first syllable. 

2. Those adjectives compounded with un that acquire by their con- 
junction with this privative particle not merely a negative expression, but 
also a superior degree of energy and force; as, lingemei'n, uncommon ; 
UngC^CU'CV, enormous ; unrtlt?'nfCi)licI), exceeding human power, immense. 
Of this description are chiefly adjectives terminating in licfl or bat*, de- 
rived from verbs, and denoting impossibility of that which the verb ex- 
presses. The accent in such adjectives is always put on the root of the 
verb; and even the separable particles ab, CiU$, ttCid), &c. lose in such 
adjectives the accent, which they invariably have in the compound 

* Formerly the ending e») was used in foreign words instead of our present 

it; as 9JMet>e% ^fxmtnjVp, &c. 



§ 16.] THE ACCENT. 31 

verbs; ex. UMtacfca'&Mlicb, inimitable; ttnail3lWli#, insupportable ; 
lint' nbtid), infinite; \\ni<X ^a\\ innumerable ; tinitt'd'yltcft, impossible; &c. 
But those that are not more emphatical than their simple adjectives, are 
accented regularly; as, u'ngeja'ylt, uncounted; u'llVCCfct, tvrong ; tl'llyi- 
Wtf?, uncertain ; u'nmettfdlUd?, inhuman (not human). 

3. Several titles arising from office, chiefly such in which the second 
component part either expresses a distinction from another similar title, 
or itself consists of a compound; as, @enetal^3tClio'r, major-general ; 
©eiteralsCietl' tenant, lieutenant-general ; D&er|f:£ieu'tenaiU, lieutenant- 
colonel; Oberitira'cbtmetltev, major; dlild)^fm't)(Xt, baron of the em- 
pire; ©ro£|YI)a'gmeittiT, grand treasurer ; DfcW&O'fpve&iger, the chief 
chaplain to a king. 

But if the second part neither expresses a distinction, nor is itself a 
compound, the accent is mostly on the first; as, 9vCi'clj?;2)arcn, baron of 
the empire ; ^e'lbpvebtger, field chaplain. 

Also adjectives beginning with l)CC\), troijl, or groj?, have the accent on 
the second component part, if they are epithets of formal distinction 
and civility; as, WOWbcl, noble; i)Ccl)a'&iU#,of noble birth; hocbfU'rfrlkb, 
most serene ; Cjrofjma'cbtty, most potent. But if they are not of that de- 
scription, the accent rests on the first component part ; as, ho'cfrtrafct'nb, 
bombastic; ho'cb&er^ig, noble-hearted; gre'fWUit&iy, generous. 

4. Compound names of holidays ; as, Dftenno'ntay, Easter-Monday; 
(S&arfrt't'taa,, Good-Friday; -tyllmfo'nntafl, Palm-Sunday; "2lfc^>ritlV tt« 
KJOCh, Ash- Wednesday ; ^rcfwlct' C&nam, Corpus Christi ; g&fiftnd'C&tfri', 
Christmas ; Dieuja't)!', New-year. 

Obs. I. In compound names of places, the English accentuati6n may, in 
general, be followed in German; as, Sffieftpfyft'len, Westphalia; ^eii^VUnnb, 
New Holland; bie sfti'ebcrlanbe, the Netherlands. 

5. The following compounds : abfcbCU'lkfr, abominable; ClUj?iVO'rbent= 
ltd}, extraordinary; bavni()e'l'^i^, compassionate; frcjtmd'glidbfr, best pos- 
sible; bie2)retet'nt0feitor'5)veifa'lti^feit,^e Trinity ; $o(jlH'n&er, elder; 

3'a()r{jU'nbtTt, century ; 3\lfjr$e'henb, a spacf of ten years ; Rv\\\x'ti, cabin ; 
Stavtc'ffd, potatoes; le'lbfya't'tiy, living; tylatVtfo, sailor; SRpv&O' if, north- 
east ; dlovbwe'ii, north-ivest ; Ujberfcfea'ngUcf), superabundant; Xibcvmd - 
fig, excessive; WUertfw'nig, subject, humble; UOrtt'e'rfl i(t), excellent; 
Wafrrha'fttg, true ; Willfo'mmeil, welcome (but the substantive ber W'l'iU 
fommen, the welcome, and the verb htVO\'\{U\XimZ\\,to welcome, have the 
accent regularly) : and the pronouns berfe'lbe, the same ; bevje'nige, that, 
through their whole declension : beffe'l&en, of the same ; bt^je'lligen, of 
that; &c. 

Obs. 2. Many Germans accent also several other adjectives irregularly ; as, 
notfyroe'ttbtcj, necessary ; fmrot'tftg, voluntary ; &c. .• but this is not so generally 
done as to warrant their being numbered among the exceptions. 

Obs. 3. The substantives formed from adjectives retain the accentuation of 
the adjectives : Sufri'tbenfjeit, contentment; UnnuSftetyidjfcit, insupportableness. 



32 THE ACCENT. [§ 17. 

§ 17. Of compound verbs are excepted: a.) those beginning with 
the particles bltrcb, Uber, Unter, and utn, if the particles are inseparable 
(see the Conjugation of Verbs) ; as, unterba'nbeln, to negotiate; utltCr* 
fdbei'bert, to discern; Ufrevfe' fretl, to overlook, b.) All those compounded 

with Winter, poll, and triber; as, 5tnter«5e'^en, *o deceive; DcKgi'e^en, fo 

execute; WibtXXU'ien, to revoke ; Wlbexftt'bm, to resist. c.) The verbs 
mififa' Utn, to displease; mi£ll'tt$ett, to fail; ttlifh'a't&en, to miscarry ; 

-mijj&a'nbetn, *o ill-treat; wie&er&o'len, fo repeat; fcbarmti'Seln, fo 

skirmish* 

Obs. All adjectives, and those substantives that end in tun] or en, derived 
from these verbs, have the accent on the same syllable as the verb; as, wtbers 
ru'tnri), revocable ; Unterfya'ltung, amusement ; Untetfyrt'nMer, negotiator. But all 
other substantives derived from the above verbs, remove the accent to the first 
syllable; as, ll'nterfyalt, maintenance ; U'nterfcfyrtft, signature; 5Qt'bcrftau&, re- 
sistance. Except %Sotti\iQ,fvljUme7it. 



\ § 18. Of Particles, or undeclinable words, are excepted : 

All compound adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions, that do not ter- 
minate in a servile $ or lid); as, hcni'm, about ; Utllhe'r, around, about ; 
jUDO'r, before; VCxbtl' ,by,over ; fcrifa'ttlrtiett, together; §t$enu' b(X,o]jpo- 
site ; mitljt' 'it, consequently ; hingC'gCtl, on the contrary; ubevatf*, ex- 
tremely; WOhla'tt, well; Ditllet'C^t, perhaps ; bttya'ib or beSttH'yen, o« 
that account ; nacfrbe'ltt, after; Demtia'cb, consequently ; attfta 'tt, instead ; 
flleie&Ot'el, equally ; feffra'ttber, w^A another ; felb=bri'tte, wi^ ^tfo others, 
4rc. ; Uberfjau'pt, in general. But those that do terminate in 5 or lid? 
are accented regularly ; as, e'6enfal(5,/i^^e; hi'nft$tlidf?, concerning; 
with the exception of those beginning with alt, which, like the nouns so 
commencing (see § 16, rule 1.), accent the second component part : as, 
adei'fet't'?, on all sides ; allenfa'll?, at any rate ; &c. 

The following compounds are also accented regularly: au'jjtft'halfc, with- 
out; be'ra,cftatt, in that manger; e't)eo>?\liXn or t>0'VG,efrertt, the day before 
yesterday ; t'nner&alb, within; i'vyetlbWO, somewhere ; je'tlfeit, the other 
side; O'berftalb, above; WbCXmCX^M, the day after to-morrow ; U'ngerilf, 
unwillingly; u'nlan.yfr, not long since; linterbalfc, below ; U'llWOhl, un- 
well; and perhaps a few others. 

§ 19. REMARKS ON THE ACCENTUATION OF COMPOUNDS. 

1. In most compounds the second component part expresses the fun- 
damental, or rather the generic, idea, and the first part is superadded to 
qualify that generic idea, and may be called its attributive ; for, in fact, 
it denotes only an attribute of the rest of the compound. Thus in 
steam-boat, writing-machine, sky-blue, — boat, machine, and blue are the 
generic ideas, defined and limited by the words steam, writings and 



§ 19.] THE ACCENT. 33 

sJcy ; and the only difference between the import of the whole com- 
pound, and that of its second part, is the superaddition of the attri- 
bute. The first part being, then, the characteristic and distinguish- 
ing feature of the compound, it must naturally attract our principal 
attention, and consequently have the accent; as the particular end of 
German accentuation is, like that of emphasis in every language, to 
direct our attention to some particular word, or part of a word. 

But there are some compounds of another kind, in which the first 
part is not a mere qualification or attribute of the second, but forms a 
part of the fundamental idea; both words being so blended as to denote 
one new idea, not always soluble into its component parts. In such 
compounds then, the first part being devoid of that artificial importance 
of a characteristic attribute, the accent falls naturally on the second as 
the concluding part of the idea. Of this latter description are most of 
the compound adverbs and of the other exceptions mentioned in the pre- 
ceding sections. Hence the difference of accentuation in ©U'bttunb, south 
wind; and ©UbO' % south east ; u' 'nterfjaltCtl, to hold tender ; bu'rd?&P&ren, 
to bore through ; thatris, to continue boring till the object is bored through — 
where the particles tmter and bitrcf) are mere abverbs, modifying the verbs 
ftaften and befyxen— andmttevfja'lten, to amuse; bimfjbO'fjren, to pierce 
— in which the particles form with their verbs but one simple indivisible 
idea. In the same manner we may account for the irregular accentua- 
tion of the adjectives compounded with un (see § 16. Exc. 2.); for, the 
superadded degree of intensity implied by the compound cannot be im- 
parted by the mere addition of the negative particle; which latter, 
therefore, not being the sole distinguishing feature of the compound, is 
not of sufficient importance to take the accent. Compare in § 1 6, 
Exc. 2, the examples, IMtne'llfcfjUcty, immense ; unja'&lbar, innumerable, 
with U'nmenfcfclicl), inhuman; u'ltgejafjlt, uncounted, &c. 

2. If compounds of general currency are again compounded with 
other words, the above observation will still hold good ; and if the first 
part be a characteristic feature of the rest, it has the accent ; as, Sja'tlb-- 
WOVterbud), manual-dictionary; ©Cfynci'bnjerfjeng, cutting-implements; 
^let'bevgwerf, lead-mines; Su'cftmefcerla^e, cloth-warehouse. 

3. An unaccented syllable may, occasionally, receive a particular 
stress, arising from an antithesis, either expressed or understood, and 
which may therefore be called the antithetical accent ; as, er be'fcfttJlbiyt 
tmb fie e'tUfcfjUl&igt, he accuses and she excuses ; ba'VCtt iff bit D?ebe tttcfn, 
of that there is no question (implying, ' but of something else') ; tva$ fa^Cll 
StC bd'jtl ? what do you say to that? 

4. The learner must have already perceived the similarity that, in 
many points, exists between the German, and the Saxon words in the 
English language, with respect to their principles of accentuation. The 



34 THE ACCENT. [§ 20. 

latter regularly accent the radical syllable : spoken, bespeak, lovely , love- 
liness. Compounds formed of words separately current in English have 
the accent on the first : stone-quarry , quarry-stone, afternoon. Even 
many of the above-mentioned exceptions are analogous to the English; 
for instance, almighty, new-year : particularly several adverbs j as, here- 
after, instead, thereon, thereby, wherewith, &c. 



§ 20. ACCENT OF FOREIGN WORDS. 

1. Most foreign words, namely, all words taken from 
the French, and all those from the learned languages which 
have suffered some change in their terminations, have the 
accent on their last foreign syllable, whether the syllable 
belong to the root, or be a servile syllable; as, Oioma'tT, 
romance, novel; @0tttpiinie'nt; ^aikme'nt, parliament j Wla* 
jo'v; $&iiofo'p&; $oe't; ©e#a'nt; (fpiflra'm; 2lpif I; %tbma'x; 
©pmpto'nt; ©pjfc'm ; b)ftma'ti\<$) 9 systematic ; 9?atio'n; na- 
tional; nationattft'ven, to naturalize ; 2>Va#o'ner, dragon. 

Obs. 1. By the latter examples, the learner may perceive that Ger- 
man terminations annexed to foreign words do not receive the accent, 
but leave the preceding foreign syllable in possession of it. This applies 
even to the terminations <t, ef *, er, germanized from foreign termina- 
tions; as in S&ea'ter, fia'bel, Dva'fd, (Syjfo'&e, .$ppot(e'(£, from thea- 

trum, fabula, &c. 

The following are exceptions to the above general rule : 

a.) Most substantives terminating in if, and all those terminating in 

if ev, have the accent on the syllable preceding these terminations ; as, 

©ramma'tif, 25ota'ntf, D'ptif, Siploma'ttf, JK&eto'rif, ©pmna'itif, &c 
©ramme/tifer, Siploma'tifer, 'Statfjema'tifer, (poU'tffer, &c 

Some substantives in jf, however, are more generally accented on the 
last syllable ; as, ^olitl'f, £riti'f, ^epttfrlt'f, ©uppti'f, ^afrri'f, tfoli'f, and 
a few others. But even many of these are accented by some Germans 
on the penultimate. 

b.) All those substantives ending in \C, in which this termination forms 
two short syllables (see $11), have the accent on the antepenultimate : 
$ami'Ue, ©tu'bien, tfe'ricn, &c 



* In words derived from the French, however, this termination has the 
accent ; but then it is generally spelt in German eU ; as, Qavte'U, enroufTe'lf, 
©ftgnte'H (see § 24, rule 4). 



§ 21.] THE ACCENT. 35 

2. But those words from the learned languages that have 
suffered no change in their terminations, retain their origi- 
nal accent ; namely, either on the penultimate, or ante- 
penultimate : (£ttti)ufia'fnui», ®pi'vtttt£, ©tu'btttm, j^li'ma, 
publicum, incognito, (£ra'mcn, So'ctor, ^rofe'flbr, Dive'ctcr, 
&atalw, Sa'non, Cc'^ifon. 

However, if a German termination is added to such words, 
they seem by that to lose this characteristic distinction, and 
the accent is removed to the last foreign syllable, according 
to the first rule; as, $luto'ven, authors; $rofe(]b'ren, pro- 
fessors; @ijavafte're, characters; catio'tlifd), canonical. 

From the preceding rule are excepted : 

Many substantives terminating in meter, which have the accent on 
the penultimate; as, $avome'tev,X(Kvnicmelev,@eorne'tev, ^p^veme'ter, 
(Sfrroncme'ter. To this exception belong generally such words as are of 
common use, and which probably came into the language through the 
medium of the French. But those which in their use are more confined 
to the learned, have the accent on the antepenultimate : as, £)era'meter, 
$enta'merer, Sia'metev, &c. 

Obs. 2. The above rules respecting Latin and Greek words, are also 
applicable to most proper names of those languages : 2?trgt'l, J^cra'j, 
Seve'nj, Dvi'b, Wtania'l, potne'r, SR.trfu'r, Vleptu'n. But in (ii'cevc, (Sa'far, 
^IntO'lliUy, ^ompe'itl?, 1)emo'ff&ene$, these words having undergone no 
change, the original accent remains. 

Obs. 3. The few words from the Italian language (generally technical 
terms of art) retain, as in English, their Italian accentuation ; as, a I 

fre'fee, pta'nc, mefija tt'nta, &c 

§21. SECONDARY ACCENT. 

1. In words of more than two syllables there is mostly, besides the 
principal accent, another of less emphasis, which is called the secondary 
or inferior accent. Thus the last syllables in generalship, brotherhood, 
friendliness, have the secondary accent. In simple words, it would 
seem, this accent arises from a tendency of the voice to alternate stress 
and remission, so that accented and unaccented syllables would natu- 
rally relieve each other. Hence every second syllable from an accented 
one, if not differently influenced by quantity, (see the following,) has the 
secondary accent. Thus the last syllables in the words ^vetfjett, liberty; 
£reunbfci?afr, friendship ; ©rtifinn, countess, may be said to be without 
any accent; but in the words ©ele'genfjei't, opportunity; SSvU'&crftfja'ft, 



36 THE ACCENT. [§21. 

brotherhood; ^b'lliyt'tin, queen, they have the secondary accent,— which 
has still more stress if they are followed by unaccented syllables ; as, 
vSele'gen^et'tenjjSvu'berfcfcaTten, ^b'nigi'nnen. Thus also, frequently, in 
foreign words; as, ©e'nera'l, So'nfifto'mim, U'nitJerfita't. 

2. But this rule arising from rhythm, is strongly modified by the 
quantity of the syllables. Those of long quantity (that is, such syllables 
over which the voice cannot hasten quickly, either from the long vowel 
quantity, or from the number of consonants; as, £ett, fam, bar, ti)\im, 
fdbaft, ni|5, i$t, ling, &c.) tend peculiarly to accent ; those o£ short 
quantity are averse to it. Hence the servile syllables tg and lid) have 
very seldom any accent ; and those that have e for their vowel, as e, 
t'r, e5, el, em, en, et, are entirely incapable of it, the voice hastening too 
rapidly over them. If, therefore, the syllables after the principal accent 
are of unequal quantity, the longer attracts the secondary accent 
wherever it may stand ; as, ^ei'erlicllfet't, solemnity ; ^reu'nbfc&a'ften, 

friendships; a'xbtl" tCte, worked. 

3. The syllable next to the principal accent is less susceptible of stress 
than those further removed ,• unless it be followed by two short syllables, 
when it receives more stress to support the voice in the enunciation of 
the following : thus the second syllable in avbette has less stress than 
the second in arbeitete. 

4. If the syllables following that of the principal accent are all 
short, the word is without any secondary accent ; as, JTo'nige, kings ; VCY-. 
t&et'fctyen, to defend; ja'frflictye, yearly ; bt'tterere, more bitter ones. The 
syllables i$ and li$, however, if separated from the principal accent by 
a short syllable, and not followed by a long one, receive some accent; 
as, feu'm y Q, fery ; fai'fevWdi)CV, imperial. 

5. In polysyllabic compounds, all the radical syllables that have not 
the principal accent have the secondary accent ; as, au'fe'jfcn, to eat 
up; 3)ia'ulC'fW» mule; ^C&nei'bcrgefe'll, journeyman tailor. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

As a foreign language is acquired by reading and the dictionary rather 
than by conversation, and the eye of the student thus becomes fami- 
liarized with its orthography, the following few rules and observations 
on the subject of German orthography will be found sufficient. It may, 
however, be proper to advise the learner to follow, in matters of ortho- 
graphy, rather the generality of writers, or his dictionary, than the pecu- 
liarities of any particular author, however valuable he may be in other 
respects. 



§ 22.] OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 37 

§ 22. OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

With capital letters begin : 

1. Every first word of a sentence or a verse ; as in English. 

2. All substantives, whether proper or common names ; and also other 
parts of speech, when assuming the character of substantives; as, bit 
©ta&t Conbon, the city of London; bd$ ©C&tff, #*? ship ; btX (ScbU&ma; 
cber, the shoemaker ; bte ©eliebte, tffo beloved; ein ©dwar^er, a 6/«c£, 
a ?26gro; ba$ (Srfiabene, *fo sublime; ba§ $iir unb 2Biber, *te ^)ro antf 

contra; fcttt Ite&eS 3'C^ ^ ^ ar *^f» ^3 €tfige Cattfeit, ^<? everlasting 
running, &c. 

Obs. 1. In some instances it may be doubtful, whether a word stands in the 
character of a substantive or not ; in which case the use of a capital must be 
left to the discretion of the writer. Hence we meet with Wotl) ti)Ut\, and notfy 
ttyun, to be needful ,• Sicfyt geben, and <id)t <j£6en, fo gwe teed,- SlnfangS, and nn; 
frtnq$, at first ; ^a\U, and fnttS, i% case. 

Obs. 2. If a compound substantive has its component parts joined by hyphens, 
each part, though separately it be no substantive, begins with a capital ; as, 
bet DOer^ofmnrfcfyatf, the hereditary earl-marshal; Ui Uiuer-Dffijier, the subaltern 
officer. 

Obs. 3. Attempts have been repeatedly made, by authors, to abolish the use 
of capital letters in substantives, and several works have been printed on this 
principle ; the contrary usage, however, prevails. 

3. Adjectives that form a part of a proper name, although not joined 
to it into one word, and such as stand after a proper name in the quality 
of an epithet; as, ba$ $ot&e STOeer, the Red Sea; Start ber ©rofle, 
Charles the Great; #riebri# bei' ^mltt, Frederick the Second, 

4. Adjectives derived from proper names of persons; as, b<X$ Wtvwe- 
rifebe ©pftem, the Wemerian system; bit $latonifcbe $&ifofopfiie, the 
Platonic philosophy. And, in general, also those derived from proper 
names of places ; as, bit 2Biener fitting, the Vienna Gazette; bie Qtip- 
gi^er 5KcffC, the Leipsic Fair. But adjectives derived from proper 
names of countries, are by the greater part of authors written without 
capitals ; as, bit beutfebe ©pracbe, the German language; bit englifcfce 
Station, the English nation. 

5. Those pronouns that refer to the person we are addressing ; as, 
©fe, or 3&r, you; %f)ntt\, or ^ucb, to you; 3{jr, or @uer, your.— The 
reflective pronoun fi'cb, yourself, however, is generally used without a 
capital. The other pronouns ; as, icb, /; fie, she or they; tfmen, to 
them, &c. are never used with capitals, unless they commence a sen- 
tence or a verse. 

OF MARKING VOWEL QUANTITY. 
(Compare the present with §§ 13 and 14.) 
§ 23. Vowels of long quantity have that quantity marked by appro- 
priate lengthening letters, (viz. ft, or an additional vowel ; as, act, ee, C<\ 

E 



38 OF MARKING VOWEL QUANTITY. [§ 24. 

te, see the end of § 2.) if they stand at the end of the root, or before a 
liquid, and often also if they occur before f> or t. Before the other con- 
sonants the long quantity is not marked, and must be ascertained from 
the vowel being followed by a single consonant (see § 13) : except the 
long t, which has its usual mark of length (te) before any consonant : — 
for examples see § 13. It must, however, be remarked here : 

1. If ACL and CO are to be inflected (see § 27), they lose one vowel ; as, 
i&Cial, saloon^'die, saloons ; i}aat,hair, sjdtifytn, a little hair; ^SiCt,boai, 
2?b'te, boats. 

2. Words terminating in te, or ee, drop the last vowel, if a syllable of 
inflection beginning with e is added; as, ber ®ee, the lake ; be$ (&ee$ 
(for <§eee?), of the lake ; %bet,idea; $been (%bcetn), ideas; $tn\?,knee ; 
£nie (Rrilte), knees; fniett (fntcen), to kneel. (Compare § 12. Obs. 2.) 
Some authors, however, retain the e of te, and write Jtniee, fnieen. 

3. The usage in respect to the lengthening letters, is not quite uni- 
form ; some writers having begun to omit them in a number of words, 
in which the long quantity may be known from the vowel being fol- 
lowed by a single consonant; whilst they retain them in others, where 
they are equally unnecessary. In a few other words some writers double 
the vowel, whilst others use 5 as a lengthening mark. We meet, there- 
fore, with such variations as tyaax and $ar, pair; $la\)tne and 9?ame y 
name; 2?0tf)e(see page 18)and2?Cte, messenger; 2?CCt and 2?0t&, boat; 
fftlbieven and jlllbiren, to study; £amed and #ame&l 3 camel, &c. 

§ 24. More regularity prevails in the practice of marking the short 
quantity of a vowel by doubling the final consonant immediately fol- 
lowing it. The consonants thus generally doubled are the liquids, and 
f» f> V> %> t anc * 3 * ( s e e § 14 ). We have, however, to observe : 

1. The double f (ff) is used only between two vowels of the same 
word; as, (jaffen, io hate ; $d\JtY, casks ; but at the end of a word, or 
before a consonant, f? is used instead, even in words borrowed from 
foreign languages; as, bet Ajflfr the hatred; \fy &a£te, I hated ; ^JrOjef:, 
process ; $a£, passport: see Obs. 2. page 9. 

2. Instead of double f and double 3, ft and are invariably used, 
But if these characters are, in the syllabication of a word, to be di- 
vided, cf becomes f;f, and g often 5*3 ; thus @#retf cn,fright, is spelled, 
when divided, i5$ref:f en ; and fi£en, to sit t ffygett, and sometimes 
flt= 3 en. The latter is more according to analogy — see § 26, Obs. I, 

* The flat mutes are very seldom doubled ; nay, it seems that their redu- 
plication cannot take place without their being changed into their respective 
sharp mutes; as, pdiflen, to plague — pfncfen, to pester; fdjiefren, to shove — 
frf)iippen, to push; (eibcn, to suffer — litt, suffered. — See also the conjugation of 
fcfyimfcrn and fieDert, in the list of irregular verbs. 



§ 25.] ORTHOGRAPHICAL VARIATIONS. 39 

3. The feminine termination =inn,as in ^raftntt, countess; JTontgtnn, 
queen, is by some authors written with a single n in the singular, and 
with a double n in the plural; as, ^'onigtn, plural &b'ttiginnen, queens. 

4. Also in words borrowed from foreign languages, the consonants are 
often doubled after short vowels, particularly 1 and t ; as, (kartell, cartel; 
$allaff, palace; Offlgtelf, official; £ttteratllr, literature; gjanfett, ban- 
quet. But several authors begin to adhere, in this respect, to the origi- 
nal spelling of the word, and write (Cartel, Citevatur, &c The final I in 
foreign adjectives terminating in el is almost universally doubled ; as, 
Originell, original; mil, real. 

5. Diphthongs being naturally of long quantity, the consonants fol- 
lowing them should never be doubled ; thus, ret£en, to tear; fcfrleifcn, 
to grind; and not reijfen, f#lei(fen. 



§ 25. ORTHOGRAPHICAL VARIATIONS. 

Besides the differences in marking quantity just mentioned, there are 
some others, which must be noticed here to assist the learner in iden- 
tifying such words as are affected by them. 

1. Several words are variously spelled by different authors; thus we 
meet with JtSjlg and tfafufc, cage; ©cfrwerb and @c&wett, sword; 

2Baijen and SBei^en, wheat; betriegen and fretriigen, to deceive; tjeira* 
t&en (or freprat&en) and (jeirratfjen, to marry; mix bau#t and mir freucR 

it seems to me. 

In some instances these differences arise from several of our present 
writers attending, in their spelling, more to the derivation of words than 
was formerly done ; and in many others, from the immediate derivation 
of a word being doubtful. Thus many write now ©tampel for ©tempt 1 !, 
stamp — being derived from jtampfen, to stamp ; Mtern for (Sltew, pa- 
rents — from alter, older. Some write fd)\u$lid), finally, as a derivative 
from @c&luj?, conclusion; whilst others write fcfrliefjltfl), deriving it from 
f$Uef>cn, to conclude, &c. The very name §eutf$ (German) is written 
by some Xeutfel? ; — this being, they maintain, its original spelling, as may 
be seen from the Latin terms Teutones and Teutonics (Teutonic), which 
are derived from it. 

2. 2) is by the greater part of our present writers entirely discarded 
from German words, and i used instead; as, jjtrei, two; breievlei, three 
sorts of; WM, May,— instead of girep, bveperlep, 3J?ap *. The verb 



• The German i), it is argued, must not be identified with the Greek T, for 
1) was formerly written ij, of which it is a mere contraction j— its present power 
being that of a mere i, it ought also to be written so. This practice, gaining 
ground daily, has been followed in the present Grammar. 

E 2 



40 



ORTHOGRAPHICAL VARIATIONS. 



[§ 25. 



fepn, to be, is however more generally spelled with M, to distinguish it 
from feilt, his. In words from foreign languages the original » is mostly 
retained; as, ( Bp\h^ > syllable ; tyfytyfif, physics. 

In order to assist the learner in his use of the dictionary, a list of all 
these orthographical variations, together with those mentioned in §§23 
-and 24, is subjoined. 

Some words are written either with 



aa 


or 


a 


a 


.. 


e 


an 


.. 


en 


at 


.. 


ei 


c 




f 


c 


.. 


2 


c 


.. 


ft 


CD 


.. 


t 


cfr 


.. 


fcfr 


b. 


.. 


t 


e 


.. 





ee 


.. 


e 


ri 


.. 


eu. 



g or 


<S> 




i 

without 


i 


ii 


i 


9 


ie .. 


i 


inn .. 


in 


ft .. 


I 


qu .. 

3 .. 


* 


ti .. 


3* 


tt .. 


t 



Those marked with an asterisk apply only to foreign words; for 
many foreign words much in use r are written by several authors accord- 
ing to their pronunciation, without regard to their original spelling ; 

thus Dffater, Station, $a$abe, ©charlatan, tfontraft, £arafter; for Of* 
trcier, Nation, fiagabt, (S&arlatan, Contract, (S&aracter, &c. 



The German punctuation being in principle (though not always in practice) 
the same as the English, no particular rules on it are requisite. It may, how- 
ever, be observed that the Germans hardly ever fail to put a comma at the 
beginning and at the end of relative clauses, and before the conjunction bfl£, 
that ; though, on the whole, they use this point much less frequently than the 
English : thus, for instance, they never place between commas such words as 
however, perhaps, too, in general, therefore, &c. The colon, on the other hand, 
is often employed before the introduction of short phrases, and, with some 
writers, even of mere words, where, in English, the voice making but a short 
pause, a comma is thought sufficient ; as, for instance, Unb @ott jprndf) : e$ roerbe 
£id)t, and God said, ' let there be light.' Sffitr fyorten nur ba$ SBort : melfeicr/t, we 
heard only the word 'perhaps? Some authors use the colon also before clauses 
that express the mere substance of a preceding noun ; as, (£t mafyte bie Werner* 
fung : imfi er, &c, he made the observation, ' that he,' &c. In other respects the 
use of stops coincides in the two languages. 

The other characters, as the apostrophe, the hyphen, the parenthesis, &c. 
are also used as in English— except that the genitive of appellatives and those 
contractions that are in general use, are not marked by an apostrophe ; as, beS 
23ruber$ 25ud), the brother s book; gefoDt (for cjefofcet— seethe Conjugation of the 
Regular Verbs), praised ; vom (uon bem), of the. 



$25.J 


ABBREVIATIONS. 41 


ABBREVIATIONS OF MOST COMMON OCCURRENCE. 


Ig. 


5lnno @&«fri, in the year 


Ron. 


£'enigii#, ^ffA 




of our Lord. 


J?r, 


^reu 3 er,£r£>«fc<?r (a coin). 


XX. 


SUtes Xeffament, Old 


I. 


Ue^, read. 




Testament. 


: l.;3. 


laufenben Safari, of the 


a. a. 0. 


am angefii^rten Drte, a/ 




current year. 




£/&<? jy/ace quoted. 


£ic. 


CiCenttat, licentiate. 


STbfcfln. 
TO. 


$bfcfrnitt, section. 
2Jbtfjeilung, division. 


2J?. or 


f Dtajejlat, majesty. 


^nm. 


Slnmerf ung, wofe. 


SRr. 


3)?agifter, magister. 


auSg. 


au^genommen, euro?/?/. 


SK.@. 


9?a#fcfmft, postscript. 


SB. 


2>ucb, 2? dnb,£ooA,0o/i«w*. 


5R.S. 


dlmei Xeffament, New 


2>.9t.2>. 25ei&ev &ecbte Sector, 




Testament. 




doctor of (both) laws. 


Ob. 


eber, or. 


<L@ap. 


Qapitil, chapter. 


W 


pfennig, penny. 


3>.or2)r. ^OCtcr, <toor. 


SKt&lr. 


^Keic&lt&aler, rlvdollar. 


M. 


bi\$ &eif?t, M«£ w fc> wry. 


@. 


<&e\tt,page. 


M. 


ba* iff, £&al Is. 


f. 


fitlfa, see. 


2)em. 


2)emetfeUe, il/w*. 


fel. 


fefig, blessed, late. 


^erg{. 01 


•7ber»letdben, 0/ *fo «ame 


2*. 


Xbeil, jtfart. 


&yf. 


Xftlr. 


Xfraler, efo#ar. 


2>Ut(tl. 


SurcfcfaUCfrt, Highness, 


u. 


unb, and. 




or Serene Highness. 


u.a. m. 


imb anbere mebr, and. se- 


(So. 


@tungelium, Go«p<?/. 




veral others. 


(?tt>. 


@uer, j/owr. 


u.b. gl. 


unb bergleicfren, a-«rf the 


(*rc. 


^'Cel I en g, Excellency. 




like. 


f or foly. fofgenb, the following. 


u. f. f. 


unb fo fort, Src. 


if.* 


fo I gen be, the following. 


u. f. w. 


unb fo wetter, #c 


»K 


florin, florin. 


S, 


2?ers, ww. 


*r. 


%vau, Mrs. 


p. 


ron, 0/. 


yt"b. 


gefroren, oorra. 
fleftorben, dw?rf. 


2*. or 

2?erf. 


?$erfafler, author. 


(%. 


©rofcfeen, groschen. 


0/3, 


twigen 3af>>re», 0/ fcrf 


&.©. 


fceiligeSdmft, Holy Writ. 




year. 


fan. 


fcetlia, Ao/^. 


v. c. 


t»on Oben,/row above.' 


£ptft. 


£aupt|tutf, Aeatf, prtgei- 


v.u. 


COn unten,/ram o<?/ottf. 




J9«/ article. 


3. 


3eife, /i«e. 


£r.£rn. 


£err, $errn, Mr 


I# 


JUttl ^Vifpiel, for exam- 


3\€. 


Ijeius @(m|tiil, Je*^ 




ple. 




Christ. 


3 (5. 


311m (Sjrempcl, /or *ra«- 


Jtoif. 


£aiferlt#, imperial. 




pie. 



* ff. is used in reference to more than one succeeding page, paragraph, &c, 

E 3 



42 ETYMOLOGICAL CORRESPONDENCE [§ 26. 

§ 26. ETYMOLOGICAL CORRESPONDENCE 

BETWEEN THE GERMAN AND THE ENGLISH LETTERS* 

The greater part of the English words derived from the Anglo-Saxon 
exist also in German, either with the same import— as, #euer, fire ; 
25ruber, brother, — or with a kindred import — as, Cuf? (pleasure), lust ; 
Ajltnb, (dog), hound*. 

Several words have suffered no change, retaining in both languages 
the same letters ; as, Winter, 25uttev, £anb, finger, ©anb, £anb, (Stranb, 
2Binb, 2Bolf, $my,blinb, ©clb, warm, £alm, bitter, SKaff, 3?e|?— which 
are the same in English, winter, butter, hand, &c. Others are alike in 
sound though not quite in spelling j as, $if#er, fisher; £)all$, house ; 
<®la$, glass ; @ra$, grass; 2?Ufcf>, bush; vafcb, rash; D$$,ox; 25a r,. 
bear; (Scfcein, shine, &c. But by far the greatest part change their letters 
according to certain analogies, the knowledge of which will enable the 
student to learn a very considerable number of German words through 
the medium of his own language. We will, therefore, conclude this part 
of the Grammar which treats of the letters, by pointing out the etymo- 
logical correspondence existing between the German and the English 
letters. 

The vowels have in a great many words remained unchanged, as 
may partly be seen from most of the preceding, and. many of the fol- 
lowing, examples. Two diphthongs, namely au and ei, remain, in most 
cases, alike in sound f, but not in character — ail being in English ou, 

* It often happens that a word exists only in one language, and derivatives 
or compounds of it in the other, or in both languages; thus, uerfieten, to lose, 
the participle past of which is vztioten, lost ; hence the English forlorn. The 
English leave is found in German only in the words lit iaut, leave of absence ; 
er i a u 6 en, to permit, &c, , but not by itself. Sometimes the same words have 
different servile syllables (§12); as, g e mtg, enough ; berett, ready; fjinten, 
behind;-— or have a servile syllable in one language and appear in the other in 
the mere root: ©efenf, link; -%>a$, hatred; oft, often. The latter is more 
frequently the case in English, where, for instance, the infinitives of the verbs, 
the imperatives, and many past participles have no servile syllables whatever ; 
as, to sing ftngerc ; sing (you), ftnget ; sung, gefungen. Therefore, only the radi- 
cal letters (and of these merely the consonants — see the next page) come into 
consideration in the following remarks and examples. 

f It is curious that the original sound of these diphthongs should have 
undergone the same changes in both languages ; in those words where nu 
agrees with ou, the sound was u in Old German as well as in Anglo-Saxon, 
(where it answers to the English ea it was in German originally au); and hence 
we find, in either language, words that have retained the old vowel (w), which, 
in the other language, have adopted its modern sound (<iu or ou) ; as, fcu, thou; 
&\x\), cojv ; Wug, plough; ©rtinD, ground; runt), round; ^pfunb, pound, &c. ; 
plum, ^pftflume ; blue, btrtu; thumb, 2)nume ; scum t <B6)mm ; up, rtuf. Grt, where 
it answers to the English long i, was also i in the Old German, as well as in 
the Anglo-Saxon, and most probably pronounced in both languages like ee, so 



§ 26.] BETWEEN ENGLISH AND GERMAN LETTERS. 43 

and et, i; as, £jait$, house; fauer, sour; 5)iatt$, mouse; taufenb, thou- 
sand; 2Bctfe, wise; ©eite, $«&?; weit, wide. In many words, however, 
both diphthongs become in English ea; as, XttUtm, dream; betflllben, 
2o bereave; £NWfen, A^ap ; tattb, deaf; @#etbe, sheath; letten, *o fefld; 
bleicfcen, to bleach; SDeigen, w£az*. In many other words the German 
ei answers to the English o; as, GBteln, stone; 29et!1, 6o«<?; (Setft, ghost; 
bei$,hot; fyeim,home; alU'm, alone, &c. On the whole, however, the 
vowels differ so often, and so variously in the two languages, that the 
rules, that could be offered concerning their changes, would have too 
many exceptions to be practically useful. The identification of English 
and German words must, therefore, principally depend on their more 
substantial and more important letters — namely 

The consonants. These letters observe in their interchange, for the 
most part, a strict analogy, grounded on their organic formation. If 
we consider the organic formation of the consonants, we find that each 
of the three organs (namely lips, palate, and tongue, see § 4) produces 
three different sounds — viz. a sharp or slender sound (as it is called in 
the Greek Grammar), a flat or middle, and an aspirate. The three 
slender sounds are p, f, t ; the three middle b, g, £>. These six letters 
are also called mutes, and are the same in both languages. The aspi- 
rates may be considered as protractions or liquidations of the mutes, and 
are somewhat different in English, as will be seen in the following table. 



SLENDER. 


MIDDLE. 


ASPIRATES. 


Germ. Eng. 
Labials p p 
Palaticks f k (c) 
Linguals t (th) t 


Germ. 

b 
b 


Eng. 
b 

8 
d 


Germ. 
Vf or f 

*or£ 


Eng. 
for v 
If or gh * 
th 



Now, we find that either the consonants of a German word remain 
unchanged in the corresponding English word,— as, ©ift, gift; bcufen, 
to bake ; Cippe, Up f, &c. — or, generally, 

the German aspirates change in English to the slender p of the 

middle aspirate > same 

SLENDER MIDDLE. ) Organ ; 

that is, pf or f = p ; eft = k &c. — as is exhibited in the following table, 
in which each German letter answers to the English below it. 



that the original ee sound has become that of i (ei) in both. The ancient sk 
(or $c), too, has assumed the sound of sh in no other Teutonic branch so 
generally as in English and German — see Obs. 2. 

* See note, page 45. « 

f The double consonants rf, ff, ft, fj, &c. are, etymologically, considered as 
single consonants, viz. f, f, jj or f (see note, page 46), 5, &c. 



44 



ETYMOLOGICAL CORRESPONDENCE 



[§26. 



German pforf, 


<*, $or£, b, 


9, &, 1 P, f, t, 


English p, 


k, t, 1 /or v, 
Examples. 


#org£, &, ] £, g, rf. 


(Sifcaf, sheep. 


3af)re, fear. 


banfen, *o *A«?i£. 


(&Clfe, soap. 


$?efrer, weaver. 


Sattme, *Akwi&. 


£aufert, heap. 


©te&, sieve. 


biinne, thin. 


, re if, ripe. 


2Deib, w/e. 


bu, thou. 


©c&iff, *%. 


fcl?te6en, to shove. 


ba, there. 


.Cjaffen, to gape. 


treiben, fo rfn'ye. 


Xob, death. 


ipfetfe, pipe. 


$Rabe y raven. 


%fab,patk. 


SBodje, wee£. 


Cabell, fo Aaye. 


$ippe, rib. 


focfren, *o coo/t. 


Xaube, rfoue. 


$eljrer, Ao&*«?. 


J?nb*dbel, knuckle. 


tattb, tfea/. 


-fltlccf, p/«g. 


mad) en, to make. 


tief, deep. 


©cnlatfe, */ag. 


i£ll#en, cake. 


3Heb, ^ie/". 


SSl'tidfe, triage (see note 


fucfren, fc- see&. 


©ilber, «&>«-» 


page 48). 


aUC^, eke. 


fcalb, Aa//". 


(5cfe, (corner) edge. 


raucfcen, fo ree&. 


5va{b, ca/f. 


jjecfe, Aetfge. 


Metcfr, bleak. 


getb, yellow. 


9?UCfen, (6«c£) ridge, as 


3eid?en, &>£e«. 


©arn, ^m. 


in $eryrutfen. 


$apfen, fo tap. 


gafjlien, to yawn. 


IJtU'if e, midge. 


5 at) in, tee. 


Qetfem, yesterday. 


rotf), retf. 


ge&n, *en. 


(&'dfd)t, yeast. 


9?0tf), ««?£ 


Jt?et^, wAite. 


wiegen, fc- weigA. 


t&un, to do. 


ft gen, /o s#. 


Spftltg, p/oMgA. 


Xjmt, deerf. 


fcavfen, fe £«fe. 


XetCj, dough. 


Sfly, t/ay. 


v 5Beigen, m>A«i/. 


XrO#, trough. 


XI) a u, rfw. 


JrjtgC, Aeatf. 


genug, enough. 


X&al, tf«^. 



To this general and very comprehensive rule we must add the fol- 
lowing particulars: 

l. The Unguals change in general very regularly. — Of the labials, p 
seldom changes ; pf always changes to p; v becomes/, as ^BatiV, father ; 
b and f remain unchanged at the beginning of words ; but in the middle 
and at the end they mostly change, as described above. In a few words, 
however, f becomes v in English ; as, @d)ailfel, shovel ; £)afen, haven ; 
jn/o'lf, twelve, &c. — The interchange of the palaticks is mere irregular: 
f remains, for the greater part, the same in English : in several words, 
however, it has become ch; as, R\r\b, child; R'dfe, cheese; £irc|;e, church 
(in Scotch, kirk); £inn, chin; ifrltf, chalk; fallen, to chew; 25anf, 
bench ; $int t Jinch, &c. — The interchange of g with its aspirate seldom 
takes place ; for at the beginning of words it generally remains un- 
changed; as, gut, good; geben, to give; and in the middle and at the 



§26.2 



BETWEEN ENGLISH AND GERMAN LETTERS. 45 



end it mostly changes into the vowels y, i* or w, and after I and r into 
ow; as, Sag, day; 2Beg, way; fagen, to say; fiegen, to lie; fliegen, 
to fly ; $egen, rain; <Segef, sail; £aget, hail; 3?agel, nail; m'ogen, 

77i<2j/; 5J?agb, maid; 25ogen, &m>; $ogel (bird), fowl; $a$?bCXt\, haw- 
thorn ; motgeil, to-morrow ; bdX&en, to borrow ; folgett, to follow ; (Ser- 
ge, (care) sorrow; (Balgen, gallows; 2>alg or 23la£balg, bellows; Xalg, 
tallow; fietftgen, to hallow, Sec. 

@(j either changes to &, as in the above examples, or it corresponds 
with gh (formerly its identical sound f ; as, h0#, high ; la$ett, to laugh ; 
Softer, daughter; a&)t, eight, &c. — The English ch, on the other hand, 
must not be identified with the German d? ; for the Saxon words in 
English that are written with this character had originally a c instead, 
which through the influence of the French was changed to its present 
sound. Etymologically, therefore, ch must be considered as k, and, 
Uke this letter, corresponds both with the German # and f : 25rucf), 
breach; W\#>tX\,to bleach ; etfuc^en, to beseech; $Dati)e, watch ; £tnfr, 
child, &c. (see the above examples.) 

The letter jt becomes y in English ; consequently its sound is not 
changed: ^afayear; Jung, young; %0<$),yoke. 

It may finally be observed, that the three combinations of letters, ft, 
$t, and fr, remain always the same in English ; as, fan ft, soft ; £luft, 



* The change into these vowels is of later origin ; for in Anglo-Saxon the 
g remained; as, dag, day ; woeg, way, &c. But this letter must then have 
often been pronounced like y, these two characters having sometimes been 
substituted for one another, — as is still the case, in some instances, in the 
provincial pronunciation ; for example, yate and foryet, instead of gate and 
forget. In some parts of the north of Germany the common people cannot 
pronounce the hard sound of g, but substitute always that of j or d) for it. 

f The English gh at the end of words and before t, was in Anglo-Saxon 
merely h; and in the corresponding German words, the ancient fy became d)« 
For instance, the words burd), through, rcd)t, right, were in the German of the 
ninth century, tfyuruf) (or burnt}), refjt ; and in Anglo-Saxon, thurh, riht. This 
h must in both languages have had the sound of the present German d) ; for, 
when a language is first written, every letter must sound : silent letters arise 
only when the pronunciation changes, and the old orthography of the language 
remains. Now, it is not in the power of the voice to aspirate an h after 
which no vowel sound whatever is to be heard, without condensing it into a 
sound like the present German d); which must, therefore, have been its sound 
in all the above cases. Afterwards, when they had acquired more expe- 
rience in distinguishing the nicer shades of sounds in writing, the final 
h, and, at a later period, also the h before t, was written, in Old German, d), 
and in English, gh, to distinguish it from the softer aspiration of k. The En- 
glish gh, therefore, though now mostly silent, evidently was once pronounced 
like the German d), as it is yet in Scotch ; and the correspondence of d) with 
the English k and gh is, consequently, quite analogous to the correspondence 
of the labial aspirate f with the English p and/; — in both cases, the German 
aspirate corresponds both with the English aspirate and mute of its organ. 



46 ETYMOLOGICAL CORRESPONDENCE [§ 26. 

cleft; fedbten, to fight ; red^t, right (gh being, as just stated, the German 
Cfr) J #Cr|r,/or<?^ ; ftiifte, coast*. 

2. The three pure aspirates or breathings, b, tt), and f, belong to the 
three different organs (see § 4). The liquids belong to the linguals ; 
except tn, which is a labial. All these letters remain, for the most part, 
the same in both languages : 2i>ille, will ; JrjOftt, horn ; QStirm, worm ; 
jVben, to see ; ©la» f, glass. (Concerning fd) and sh, see Obs. 2.) In 
a few instances, however, interchanges take place also between these 
letters: viz. 1.) m with w and other labials: mit, with; 5)ienf#, wench; 
^ttnmel, heaven; &c. 2.) r with s : $afe, hare ; @ifen, iron ; war, was; 
rerlieren, to lose ; frieretl, to freeze, Sec. 3.) / with n and r : 3tit, tent ; 
i?tn6, child; fcbleicJ^en, to sneak; <Bdbe\, sabre; ftammeln, to stammer. 
4.) n with /«, — mostly in servile syllables: 2}oben, bottom; felten, se/- 
fitom; 2?ilfYn, bosom. 

9? is often dropped in English : ttUnfcfren, to wish ; im$, ws; 3J?unfr, 
mouth; f tin f, jive. This syncope has then the effect of changing a 
before a lingual into oo or o; as, @atl5, goose; £a$n (Old German 
%abnb), foo^; ber anbere, ^e other. 

By transposition the liquids \ and r often occur in one language after 
the vowel, whilst in the other they are before it (in the same way as in 
the verb to work and its imperfect wrought); as, 25ret, board; brennetl, to 
burn; S5crfre, bristle ; 9?o£ (Old German #vc$),horse ; fyaitttl, to split; 
fpklen, to play (see Obs. 2); #urcbt (fear), fright; ©cjjirm, screen. 

* The letter t, it seems, has, in both languages, a tendency to join with 
the aspirates, and, when added to a word, often changes the preceding 
letter into its aspirate. Thus, ©ift, gift, from ge6en, to give ; Ztift, drift, from 
trei&en, to drive ; from fcfytarjen (to strike), to slay, comes @df)liid)t, battle, and 
id)lad)ten, to slaughter ; from fefjen, £o see, comes ©id)t, si^/ii; from Irtogn, to 
Ixid, Sttft, burden ; from frieren, to freeze, ?sm$, frost (t being a lingual). Thus 
also the English imperfects taught, sought, might, bought, wrought, caught, 
brought, from the infinitives teach, seek, may, buy (Anglo-Saxon magan, 6yc- 
gean), work, &c. Also the English verb must belongs to this class; for, 
though it now imports present time, it is but the imperfect of the Anglo- 
Saxon mot (like the Dutch verb moet, imperfect moest), the mute of which, 
being in the imperfect followed by t, is changed into s (the pure aspirate of its 
organ), according to the preceding analogy. Also wist is, by the same rule, 
the imperfect as well of wot as of wis. 

f It may assist the learner in the Orthography to remark, that after a short 
vowel the hissing sound in German is always written ff in the middle, and fj 
at the end of words (see § 24), whether its corresponding letter in English be 
s or t; as, Sffirtifer, water : sftug, nut ; miffen, to miss ; &ug, kiss. But after a 
long vowel f generally answers to the English s, and g to the English t .« 
roeifc, wise; roeifj, white; ©trt$, grass; grog, great. The German S, therefore, 
seldom answers to the English t, except in au$,out; e$,it; mc\$,what; baS, the, 
or that (pronoun) ; and 2o», lot; in which words the g is only a modern innova- 
tion; in Old German they were more analogically spelled with g; and our 
present distinction of the definitive baS, that, from the conjunction bnp, tlm^ 
did not exist, both words being originally identical. 



§ 26.J BETWEEN ENGLISH AND GERMAN LETTERS. 47 

3. It may further be said, that there are also three nasal sounds in 
German and English, produced by the three organs ; namely, mb or mp 
by the lips, ng or nf by the palate, and nb or nt by the tongue. At 
least, in many words, the m and n must, etymologically, be considered 
as forming in conjunction with the following mute but one character, 
which often interchanges with other letters of the same organ. Thus the 
imperfects of the verbs brttfyen, to bring; and bettfen, to think, are 
bractyte, brought-, badfrte, thought : — the nasal sound being changed into 
the aspirate. The words fret (Old German frig ),free, and ftatlf, frank; 
the words if anbern and wallen, to wander; sjj?un& and 3ftauf, mouth; 
s I&mb and 2DaU, and the English wall; rei£en and rend; @$ltimpe 
and sloven ; 5JiUtfr or ©eniUtft, and the English mind and mood, — are 
all identical or kindred words, with the mere change of nasal charac- 
ters for others of their respective organs. The English mb and mp are 
in the modern German mostly mm ; as, Oatnm (formerly £amb), lamb; 
frumm (formerly frilttlp), crump; ftumm, dumb; $amm, comb; flim= 
inCtt, to climb; fcfylmnmn'n, to slumber; 3ttt1ttier&Ol3, timberwood; Wittl- 
mertt, to wimper, &c. 

It is curious that a few verbs in Old German, and other branches of the 
Teutonic, had a double termination in their roots ; one with a vowel or 
fc, and the other with the nasal sound n$ or nb; as, hafyan and ftangan, 
to hang ; fajjatl (which is yet used in poetry) and fangan, to catch ; gait 
and gangatl, to go ; frafllt and jranban, to stand.— In later times, it seems, 
one or the other of these terminations came into disuse, one dialect 
retaining one, another the other form ; hence the Scotch verb gang 
and the English to go ; the German ttC&en and the English to stand. 
The terminal difference between the German lei&en and the English to 
lend, may, perhaps, have an analogous origin. The verbs ffcfjen and 
gefcetl have, in apart of their conjugation, retained the nasal termination 
. (see the Conjugation of the Irregular Verbs). 

4. In the radical terminations of some words we find, besides the 
interchanges of letters of the same organ, also the palaticks interchanging 
with Unguals ; as, fiad),jlat; bitten, to beg; Settler, beggar; ©peic&fl, 
spittle; fcte#en, to bend, &c. — but more frequently with labials; as, 
fc&laff, slack; frie(jKn, to creep; ftecfcen, to stab; 2Boge, ivave ;— and 
particularly the two aspirates; as, feufjen, to sigh; ficjjten, to sift; 
&$ai\)t, shaft*. 

* Thus also 9?id£)te, niece, was formerly Sfftfte ; whence Sfteff t>, nephew ; — 
and the German facfyte, and fntlft, and the English soft, are, etymologically, 
identical words. This interchange of ft with cht (or ght), occurs also very 
frequently in some other dialects of the Teutonic ; for instance, German Suffc 
{air), Dutch Lucht ; — German ftnf, Low German (or Plattdeutch — seepage 1) 
locht, English k/£ ;— English after, Dutch achter. In Old English, ht or ght 
sometimes rhymes withy* ,■ as, softe with bought and wrought;— dohter (daughter) 



48 ETYMOLOGICAL CORRESPONDENCE [§ 26. 

Obs. 1. The same correspondence of letters which exists between the German 
and English, exists likewise, more or less, between the German and all the 
other Teutonic dialects (see page 1 ) ; that is, the German letters are either the 
?arae in those branches, or, if they change, the German aspirates answer to 
their slender mutes, the German middle to their aspirates, &c. Thus the 
word tief, deep, is in the Gothic, diup; in Anglo-Saxon, deop; in Swedish, djup; 
in Low German, deep ; and in Dutch, diep. — 38ei6, wife, is in Anglo-Saxon, 
wif; in Icelandic, vif; in Danish, viv ; in Dutch, wyf. — gt'ufyen, token, is in 
the Gothic, taikns; in Anglo-Saxon, tacn ; in Swedish, Tekn; in Dutch and 
Low German, Teken. 

The following remarks, it is presumed, will throw some light on the most 
frequent interchanges, namely, on those between the mutes and aspirates. 

Proceeding on the supposition that, in such interchanges, the mute is, in 
general, the original letter, and the aspirate a later corruption of it, we may 
observe that each of the two main branches of the Teutonic (see page 1) is 
marked by a peculiar tendency with reference to this change of mutes into 
their aspirates. 

1.) The Lower branch (to which also the Gothic must in this respect be 
referred) inclines, especially in the middle and at the end of words, to change 
the flat mutes b, g, d, into their corresponding aspirates/ or v, h {gh), and th. 
Thus many words in the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon change, in their conjugation, 
or declension, their flat mutes into aspirates ; for instance, in Gothic, hlaibs 
(loaf) is in the accusative hlaifj bindan (to bind) is in its imperfect banth ;— 
the Anglo-Saxon bugan (to bow) is in the imperfect beah. And hence the 
German fc, g, and b, become so often aspirates in the dialects of the other 
branch. This tendency has continued its effects down to the English ; in 
which the flat mutes of many Saxon words have become aspirates ; as, Saxon, 
habban, English, to have; fader, father; modor, mother; trog, trough; dweorg, 
dwarf (dwargh— see note page 47) ; genog, enough, &c. The frequent change 
of the Anglo-Saxon g into y in English (see page 45) must also be attributed 
to this tendency ; for the consonant y, the other aspirate of g, becomes, natu- 
rally, a mere vowel at the end of words, or before consonants. 

2.) The Higher branch (the German), on the other hand, has the ten- 
dency to change, in the middle and at the end of words, the slender or sharp 
mutes p, f, t, into their aspirates f, ci), £ ; but more frequently, and even at 
the beginning of words, the slender becomes a complex sound in German ; — 
namely, it commences with the mute sound and terminates with the aspirate 
of its organ : from which combination of slender and aspirate arose the three 
complex sounds peculiar to the German, viz. pf, $ {i. e. U, as it is pro- 
nounced), and d) (i. e. c or t, and fy). These characters invariably answer to 
the slender mutes p, t, k, of the other branches, from which letters, it should 
seem, they are formed by adding to each mute the aspirate of its respective 
organ *. In pf and s this complex sound of the slender and aspirate exists 

with qfte, &c. Also in German, Dutch, and Low German poems of the 13th 
century, such rhymes occur frequently ; for instance, fdbnft with Owfyt, Srnft 
with ytadjt, &c (see Grimm's 25eutfd)e Qtammatid, vol. i.) It would seem, 
therefore, that the pronunciation of h before t at that period, was uncertain, 
and fluctuated between the guttural and labial aspiration, which in English, 
from its aversion to this guttural sound, may have extended also to the final h, 
whence probably the present pronunciation of gh in the words cough, laugh, 
enough, &c. In Spanish the contrary change has taken place, the Latin/having 
become h in many words ; as, facere, hacer ,• ferrum, hierro ; filum, kilo, &c. 

* Even in several of the foreign words that were introduced into the Ger- 
man, the slender mutes p and t underwent this change ; as, ^pftonie, {plant) j 
^fnffe, {priest)— from the Latin planta, papa. 






§ 26.] BETWEEN ENGLISH AND GERMAN LETTERS. 49 

yet in the pronunciation, and needs no further demonstration. But it is most 
probable that d) also, had originally no other sound than that of the letters of 
which it is compounded — namely, c and fy ; and that, consequently, like pf and 
3, it consisted of a mute and its aspirate. For, 1st, in the oldest German 
writings d) was continually used at the beginning of words which were after- 
wards, and are still, written with t ; which change, if the c in d) was sounded., 
amounted merely to the omission of fy — an omission quite natural, considering 
that f) cannot be aspirated without exertion after a mute.— 2dly, because 
in its reduplication, after a short vowel, it was written cd), which proves that the 
initial sound of d) must have been that of t : for it seems to have been a prin- 
ciple in the Teutonic, that if a complex sound was to be doubled, it was done 
only with its first or incipient sound, and not with the whole ; thus pf was after 
short vowels written ppf, and j is still in that case written tj instead of ji (see 
§ 24) *. — The I) in d) had probably the sharp aspiration of the final (;, that is 
Of the present d) (see Obs. page 14), similar to pf and j, in which the aspirate 
sound is likewise sharp — viz. f and fj, and not to and soft f ;— for, from a kind 
of assimilation, the aspirate has always a sharp sound before and after sharp 
(slender) mutes. From all which it may be presumed, that d) once sounded 
as we should now pronounce fd). This harsh combination lost afterwards 
its aspirate sound at the beginning of words, and was written ( ; and in 
the middle of words it lost its t sound, and assumed its present pronuncia- 
tion. Having once lost its admixture of the t sound, it was found a fit 
character to represent the strong guttural aspiration of f), and was therefore 
used also for fy whenever this latter had a sharp aspiration, that is, at the end 
of words, and before t. (See Note f , page 45.) It is not improbable that 
f and fj, when they answer to p and t of the other dialects, originated in a 
similar manner from pf and j, of which the mute sound was dropped at some 
remote period. This would explain why no German word begins with % or 
d), or with the f which answers to p of other dialects, although so many begin 
with the complex aspirates pf and j ; for we may naturally suppose that the 
initial mute sound is less liable to be dropped at the beginning of a word, than 
in the middle or end of it. 

Obs. 2. The three pure aspirates w, h, and s, were in the ancient Teutonic 
often combined with certain consonants, principally liquids. 

W was in Anglo-Saxon often prefixed to 7 and r, and still exists before r in 
many English words ; in German, however, it is never put before consonants : 
thus the English to wring, to wrench, are in German rtngen, renfen (in uerrenfen), 

H, which was anciently often prefixed to the liquids I, n, r, and to w, is now 
omitted before liquids, both in German and English ; for instance, the Old 
German words fytettnr, Ijnufj; Saxon, hlaedar, hnut; are now £ei tec, ladder ,- 
9?u£, nut. (Concerning hw see the next observation.) 

5 was in Old German, as well as in Anglo-Saxon, often prefixed to the 
letters /, m, n, w, and to the sharp mutes (;?, k, t) ; but seldom to flat mutes f. 



* This explains also the origin of tch and dg in English. The reduplication 
of c was in Anglo-Saxon cc, and of g, eg or gg. When afterwards, through the 
influence of the French, c assumed in certain words the sound of ch (tsh), and 
g that of the softg (dj), the incipient sound of these letters having thus become 
t and d, their reduplication was, in consequence, spelled tch and dg ; thus, for 
instance, the Saxon wacce has become in English watch ; the Saxon streccan, 
stretch ; brigge, bridge : from which it may also be seen, that the letters c and g 
in Anglo. Saxon had always the hard sound, at least in the earlier periods of 
the language. 

f If s is prefixed to a word beginning with a flat mute, it changes the latter 
to the sharp of its organ ; as may be seen, for instance, by comparing fcretten 
with fpteiten, and the English to spread ,- batten with to starve ; guUt with @d)uf & 
(Old German fcutb). 

F 



50 ETYMOLOGICAL CORRESPONDENCE [§ 26. 

We find, therefore, in those languages only the following combinations with 
this letter : si, sm, sn, sw, sp, st, sc for sk), and scr. The first change thai 
took place in Old German was with \'t, which was changed to fd). At a much 
later period also the f before f, m, n, and ro, was changed to fd) ; — which at 
that time must already have had its present sound, namely, that of the En- 
glish sh.— At last, says a late publication*, the (before \> and t also passed 
into the sound of fd) ; but without changing its orthography — probably, as we 
may presume, because the latter had, by that time, gained some stability. 

Also the Anglo-Saxon sc, in which probably both letters were distinctly sound- 
ed f, was changed in Old English to sch, and afterwards to sh; but all the other 
above-mentioned Saxon combinations (si, sm, sn, &c.) have remained unchanged 
in English. Hence we find that the German fd) before (, m, n, and vo—i.e. 
where it answers to the ancient s — corresponds with the English s ; but in all 
the other cases, having originated from fc, it corresponds with the English sh ; 
as, \'d)mmmtn, to swim ; @d)ttee, snow ; fd)nueren, to smear; ©d)(af, sleep; fd)orf» 
sharp; Srfeifd), flesh ; ©d)rein, shrine ; &c. In a few instances, however, the 
ancient sc has remained unchanged in English, whilst in German it went into 
the sound of fd) ; as, (gdjnum, scum ; fd)eften, to scold; S(rtfd)e, flask ; &c. 

Although this initial .<?, in some instances, appears to be a servile letter, and 
to modify the root;— thus to smelt seems to be derived from to melt, and to 
swing from wing (analogously to the derivation of to hear from ear, by the 
prefixing of an aspirate)— yet it is often omitted in either language, without 
affecting the import of the word; as, ftumm, dumb; ntefm, to sneeze ; frnfjen, 
to scratch; fur?, short (Saxon sceort) ; @d)nnfre(, nib; fd)reien, to cry; and 
fdjmefjen is used now both for to melt and to smelt f . 

Obs. 3. The English wh, which was in Anglo-Saxon written hw (as it is 
yet pronounced in English), and in the corresponding Old German words 
btt), or f)U, has in modern German dropped its fy, and become merely n> ; as, 
warm, when; roa$,what; mi$, white ; &c. — Old German tyiunn or tyuan, fyroaj, 
&c. 

In the Gothic, hiu occurs also in the middle and at the end of words, which, 
in Old German and Anglo-Saxon (where hw is seldom found but at the be- 
ginning of words), have only h ; as, (etfjen ( Saxon lihan), to lend, is in Gothic 
leiliwan ; naf), nigh, Gothic nehwa §. In the verb fcfjen, to see, the German 
and Saxon seem to have dropped each a different aspirate from the original 
hw found in the Gothic ; the infinitive, imperfect, and participle past of this 



* See Grimm's 2)eutfd)c ©rnmmnttf, vol. i. 

f As we may conclude from those words where the original sc has remained ; 
as, scum, skin, &c. ; and particularly from the circumstance of sc being often, 
by transposition, changed to x — i. e. cs : for instance, flxas for fiscas (fishes) ; 
aksian for askian (to ask). Thus also the word twixt, Saxon iwyx, is probably 
a transposition of twisc, as it is yet in Scotch twish, and in German $nnfd)en ; — 
and the English to mix is a similar transposition from the Saxon miscan, Ger- 
man mifd)cn. This change of sc into x would be inexplicable, if sc had been 
pronounced like the present sh. 

| The labial and palatic mutes before liquids are also not always radical 
letters, and are therefore sometimes omitted in one language, though retained 
in the other; as, lumpen, lump, or clump; 9?flfnfl, cream; nagen, to gnaw ; 
23(ic£, look; Qieici), like; QHuct, luck. — The g in the two last examples was 
originally the prefix ge, of which the e was dropped in time. Thus also the 
German gfnuDen (contracted from gefnutcn), and the English believe, are one 
and the same word, only with different prefixes. 

§ In the Anglo-Saxon verb nehwdn (to approach), the ancient hw is yet 
preserved. 



§ 26.] BETWEEN ENGLISH AND GERMAN LETTERS. 51 

verb being in Gothic saihwan, sahw, gasaihwan ; in German fefyen, fa^, gefefjert ; 
and in Saxon seon, saw (or sak), gesewen. It appears not improbable, that htv 
was the original sound also in most others of that numerous class of words in 
which the German f; answers to the English w ; as, t rnfyen, to crow ( Saxon 
crawan) ; ©trol), straw ; mctyen, to mow (Saxon mawan) ; SReifye, row; &c* 

* What has been said of the Teutonic hw may be corroborated by the qu of 
such words as are common to the Latin and the Teutonic ;— which, at the same 
time, will afford us one or two of those instances wherein the original form of the 
parent, or rather common, language, has been better preserved in the latter than 
in the former. The Teutonic aspirates correspond, generally, with the Latin 
slender mutes — particularly the palatics; as, £<uipt, caput; £etj, cor; £orn, 
comu; 9Btef),;>ecMS; nd)t, octo; red)t, rectum; &c. — Consequently, the Teutonic 
hw answers exactly to the Latin qu; as, when, quando ; which (Saxon hwilc), 
qualis ; what, quod; &c. — Now we often find that only one letter — a labial 
or palatic — of the Latin qu is retained in the Teutonic ; as, ceque, even ; 
linquo, I leave; quinque, fiinfe; quatuor, Gothic fidvor; coqueo, ich f ocfye ; 
aqua (in Gothic still with both aspirates ahwa), Old German afya. Thus 
also the Latin torquere, by transposition of the r, is in German iwfyen, 
and in Anglo-Saxon thrawan, — each language having retained a different 
aspirate. But, on the other hand, we find also words in which the Latin 
seems to have retained one letter of the original qu, and the Teutonic the 
other, or both ; thus fommen, to come, and the Latin venire, are both derived 
from the Old Teutonic quiman. The German and Saxon quick (alive) — __ 
in the Westmoreland dialect hwick — is in the Gothic quiw ; which points to 
an original form of quiqu, the final qu of which dropped in German the aspi- 
rate, and in Gothic the mute. In the Latin vivus and vivo, both the initial 
and final qu of the original quiqu have dropped their mute sounds, whilst in 
vixi (i. e. vicsi) and victum the mute of the final qu is preserved, and the aspi- 
rate omitted (similar to cuctum and relictum, from coqueo and relinquo). This 
accounts also for the apparently anomalous interchange of c and v in this 
verb. — An original qu may be supposed to have existed also in the few other 
Latin words in which an interchange of c and v takes place ; as in nix, nivis ; 
conniveo, connixi ; — a supposition which receives some confirmation from the 
fact that related languages have corresponding words, some with g or h, and 
some with w. 



F 2 



52 

PART II. 
ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 27. Etymology divides and subdivides words, accord- 
ing to their nature, into classes or parts of speech ; points 
out the changes which they undergo in order to express 
the accidents peculiar to each ; and, lastly, shows the laws 
by which words are formed by derivation from, and com- 
position with, each other. 

Most German grammarians adopt the usual nine parts of 
speech; namely — 



The Article, %ctM or SeutC- 

VOQXt. 
The Substantive, .jSattptWort. 
The Adjective, ^etttJOrt. 
The Pronoun, Jiirwrt. 
The Verb, gdlttMt. 



The Adverb, 9?e6et1tt>ort. 
The Preposition, 2?erf)altm£- 

StfOtt. 
The Conjunction, 2>inbett)0rt. 
The Interjection, (fffipfrn- 



the definitions of which the learner is supposed to know 
from his English grammar. 

The last four, namely, the adverb, preposition, conjunc- 
tion, and interjection (which are also sometimes compre- 
hended under the general name of particles), are not in- 
flected*. The other five are inflected — that is, they un- 
dergo certain changes to express those relations by which 
they are generally affected, and which, not being essential, 
are called accidents. Thus in English, the last syllable 
in churches expresses merely the accident of plurality ; and 
the last syllable in laughed, that of past time. 



* However the adverb admits (like the adjective) servile terminations to 
express the degrees of comparison. 



§ 28.] DECLENSION. 53 

The changes of the article, substantive, adjective, and 
pronoun, are called declension ; those of the verb, corruga- 
tion. Both, the declension and conjugation, are formed 
chiefly by annexes (§ 12) ; except the participle past, which, 
generally, receives moreover the prefix $c. The letters of 
inflection used in the whole process of declension and con- 
jugation, are e, ttt, tt, r, 3, t, $, and t> ; of which the last two 
are used only in the participles. 

Obs. That part of a word of which no letter is omitted in the declen- 
sion or conjugation, we shall call its grammatical root ; which, there- 
fore, different from the radical syllable, excludes only letters of inflec- 
tion, but not letters of derivation. (See $ 12, rule 4.) Thus, for in- 
stance, the grammatical root of hostesses would be hostess; but its 
radical syllable is host. 

Besides the addition of letters, the German language 
makes also frequent use of another means of inflection in its 
declension and conjugation — viz. a change of the radical 
vowels a, 0, U, ail, into a, b, it, ail; for instance, 2? vufcer, 
brother, 2Mtber*, brothers; %d) Wat, I was, %d) Ware, I 
were, or I should be. This etymological change of the above 
vowels, the German grammarians call the Umlaut ; and 
which we shall call the vowel inflection f . 

The derivation of words from one another is effected, for 
the most part, by prefixes and annexes, and is, besides, 
generally accompanied by the vowel inflection, as will be 
shown in its proper place. 

§ 28. DECLENSION. 

The accidents denoted by the declension are Gender, 

Number, and Case. There are three genders, Masculine, 

Feminine, and 'Neuter ; two numbers, Singular and Plural; 

and four cases, Nominative, Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. 

* A few traces of this vowel inflection in the formation of the plural of sub- 
stantives, are found also in English ; as, foot, feet; tooth, teeth ; brother, brethren ,- 
mouse, mice ; man, men. 

f The other vowels and diphthongs (e, t, n, 6, u, nt, &c.) are never inflected ; 
and the term vowel inflection invariably refers to such words only as have the 
vowels n, o, u, or au, in their root. 

F 3 



54< DECLENSION. [§ 28. 

Obs. These four cases denote the four relations in which the substan- 
tive is most frequently placed. The nominative denotes the subject of 
the action, or the noun to which the verb attributes something *. The 
genitive or, as it is called in English grammars, the possessive case, ex- 
presses generally the relation of possession or property, and is in English 
either preceded by the sign of, or has 's added to it. The dative denotes 
the indirect or mediate object of the action ; that is, the noun for whose 
sake the action is done. This case is designated in English by to, or for 
— expressed or understood. The accusative case denotes the direct or 
immediate object of the action. In the sentence, ' My friend delivered 
his father's letter to the master of the house,' friend, as the subject or 
the noun to which here the action of delivering is attributed, is in the 
nominative; letter, as the immediate object of the action or as the thing 
delivered, is in the accusative; master is in the dative,- and father's and 
house are in the genitive. In the expression, ' We sent him away,' him 
is in the accusative ; but in, e We sent him a book,' book, as the thing 
sent, is in the accusative, whilst him is in the dative, for it means to him. 

These four obvious relations are marked by appropriate terminations 
of the noun, or its dependents; all others— as those of cause, instru- 
mentality, end, &c. — are expressed by prepositions ; in the same way 
as the German dative is expressed in English by to or for. 

The four cases have different terminations for the singu- 
lar and plural. In the singular they have, moreover, di- 
stinct terminations for each gender ; but in the plural the 
same inflections are used for all genders. (§ 29.) Substan- 
tives, therefore, as they have each but one gender, are ca- 
pable of eight variations, four for the singular and four for 
the plural ; but they are very defective in their inflections, 
none of them completing the whole eight, and most of them 
having no more than two or three. This deficiency is, how- 
ever, supplied by their dependents, the articles, adjectives, 
and adjective pronouns. These, not importing any thing 
existing of itself, can have neither gender, case, nor num- 
ber, belonging to them ; but, as subsidiaries of the substan- 
tive, they must agree with it in gender, case, and number : — 
that is, they are provided with appropriate terminations to 
ui ,, 

* The nominative is also used when a substantive is adduced simply as 
the name of a subject, without any relation to other words; for instance, as it 
occurs in dictionaries. 



§ 29.] DECLENSION OF DEFINITIVES. 55 

express these accidents of, the nouns to which they belong. 
Being joined with substantives of all genders, they are ca- 
pable of sixteen variations ; but they have the same inflec- 
tion for more than one accident— as will be seen in the 
following section. 

It must further be observed, that the declinable parts of 
speech do not all use the same endings for marking the 
same accidents ; the article, for instance, marks the dative 
singular of the masculine and neuter gender by em ; the 
substantive marks the same case sometimes by e, and the 
adjective, often by en. All declinable words may therefore be 
arranged under the following four declensions ; namely — 

1. The declension of the definitives. 

2. The declension of the substantives. 

3. The declension of the adjectives. 

4. The declension of the personal pronouns. 

§ 29. DECLENSION OF DEFINITIVES. 

The articles and the adjective pronouns, which are here ? 
after the example of several grammarians, comprehended 
under the name of definitives (from their common pecu- 
liarity of defining and particularizing the noun), having in 
German very nearly the same declension, and the same in- 
fluence on that of the adjectives, we shall materially sim- 
plify this part of the grammar by comprising them under 
one general view, and thus anticipating here the declensions 
of most adjective pronouns. — A few of the latter, however, 
which have some peculiarities in their declension, as well 
as some particulars concerning a few of the following defi- 
nitives, will be more conveniently explained when we treat 
of the pronouns. 

The definitives may be arranged under two declensions ; 
namely, the complete, and the defective declension. 

1. Complete declension, in which each case has an inflec- 
tion annexed to it. 



56 DECLENSION OF DEFINITIVES. [§ 29. 



Inflections 


of the Complete Declension. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


masc. 


fern. 


neut. 


for all genders 


N. — er 


— e 


— e£ 


— 


G. — e3 


— er 


— e3 


— er 


D. — em 


— er 


— em 


—en 


A. —en 


— e 


— e$ 


— e 



Thus are declined, among others, the following words ; 
—that is, the preceding inflections are added to their first 
syllable, which is their grammatical root : 

biefer, this. tt?eldber, which, oiler, all. manner, many. 
iener, that, jeber, every. foldber, such. a (man). 



as, 







Singu: 


ar. 


Plural. 




masc. 


fem. 


neut. 


for all genders. 


N. 


biefer, 


biefe, 


biefe v, this ; 


btefe, these. 


G. 


biefel, 


biefer, 


bkftv, of this; 


biefer, of these. 


D. 


biefe m, 


biefer, 


btefem, to this; 


biefen, to these. 


A. 


btefen, 


bkfc, 


btefe£, this ; 


biefe, these. 



Obs. I. The adjectives also have this declension, if unpreceded by 
another definitive, as will be explained in its proper place. 

2. Defective declension. 

This is like the preceding declension, except in three of 
its cases — namely, the nominative of the masculine, and the 
nominative and accusative of the neuter gender — which want 
the usual inflections er and ix> ; and for which reason this 
declension is called the Defective. 

Inflections of the Defective Declension. 





Singular. 




Plural. 




masc. 


fem. 


neut. 


for all gender?. 


N. 
G. 




— e 
— er 




— e 
— er 


— e3 


— tf 


D. 


— em 


— er 


— em 


—en 


A. 


—en 


— e 




— e 



§30.] 



THE ARTICLE. 



57 



Thus are declined the following eight words ; that is, the 
preceding inflections are annexed to them : 

tttetn, my ; fein, his, or one's; i\Xit,your ; em, a, or one s 

him, thy : unfer, our; \{)X, their, ov her ; hitt, no ; 



as, 





Singular, 
masc. fern. 


N. 
G. 


mem, meine, 
meine$, metner, 


D. 


meinem, meinev, 


A. 


metnen, meine, 



Plural. 

for all genders. 

ntetne, my. 
meinev, of my. 
metnen, to my. 
meine, my. 



neut. 

metn, 
meme£, 
meinem, 
ntein, 

Obs. 2. The termination er in unfer, our, and etier, your, belongs to 
the grammatical root (§ 27), and is, therefore, different from er in biefer 
and jener, &c, where it is a syllable of inflection : hence unfer, geni- 
tive unfereS, dative ttnferem, &c. and not ttnfe£, unfem, &c. 

Obs. 3. The e of the ending er in unfer and euer, may be dropped 
when these words become inflected; as, unfre$, eitreS, unfrem, eiirem, 
&c. instead of unferel, ettere^, &c. In the cases terminating in e£, em, 
en, the e of inflection is sometimes dropped instead of that of the gram- 
matical root,- as, unfer$, unferm, unfern, for unferes or unfreS, &c. 

When any one of these eight words is not followed by a 
substantive or adjective, it has the complete declension ; as, 
3!>r 23mber unfc> unfer 4 er (or unfer SBmber), her brother and 
ours; 2)?ein $au$ i\l Qt$$it aU feme3 (or fein $au$),my house 
is larger than his : (it I)at ein $au$ in tit ©tabt, unfc etne£ 
auf bem £anbe, he has a house in town, and one in the coun- 
try*' 3$ fenne feine$ tiefer $infc>ev, I know none of these chil- 
dren. But if an adjective follows, the defective case remains 
defective ; as, $?etn $an$ tjr alt, id) mug em neue$ haiiw, 
my house is old, I must build a new one. 



§ 30. THE ARTICLE. 

There are two articles, as in English ; viz. the definite, 
bit, the ; and the indefinite, ein, a. The latter has the de~ 



58 THE ARTICLE. [§ 30. 

fective declension, the former the complete ; with this pe- 
culiarity, however, that the nominative and accusative cases 
of the neuter gender have bci$ instead of be3 ; and the same 
cases of the feminine gender and of the plural number, bic 
for be. 

Definite Article, 





Singulai 


. 


Plural. 




masc. fem. 


neut. 


for all genders. 


N. 


ber, bk, 


bat, 


bk, the. 


G. 


be£, ber, 


be£, 


ber, of the. 


D. 


bem, ber, 


bem, 


ben, to the. 


A. 


ben, bte, 


ba§, 


bk, the. 



Obs. 1. 1)er, bte, ba$, is also used as a relative, and as a demonstrative 
pronoun • but then the genitive throughout, and the dative of the plu- 
ral, have different terminations ; for which see the pronouns. 

Obs. 2. The definite article is in dictionaries and grammars often put 
before substantives, merely to ehow their genders. 

Obs. 3. The dative singular of this article, belli and ber, and the 
accusative neuter, ba$, are frequently compounded with certain prepo- 
sitions, and then contracted as follows : 



%m, for an bem, at the. 
an£, for an ba$, at the. 
auf$, for auf ba$, upon the. 
beim (or bepm), for fcei (or frejj) 

bem, by the. 
bur#», for butd) ba$, through the. 



filr$, for fiir ba§ } for the. 
im, for in bem, in the. 
in£, for in ba£, into the. 
COm, for VOtl bem, from the. 

311m, for ju bem, to the. 
jur, for ju ber, to the. 



In colloquial language, other contractions of a similar nature are also 
frequently used ; as, frinterm, ufrerm, U&erS, »or$ f &c, for Winter bem, 
\ibet bem, Uber ba$, COr b<X$, &c. ,• but they are not approved of by gram- 
marians. 

In some instances, gum and gur are contractions of ju and the in- 
definite article einem and finer. See the use of the article in the 
Syntax. 



§31.] THE SUBSTANTIVE. 59 

Indefinite Article. 
Singular. 
N. citi, einc, tin, a. 
G. eme3, emer, eme$, of a. 
D. etnem, ctncr, timm, to a. 
A. cincn, cine, tin, a. 



No Plural. 



The following will exemplify the inflections of the pre- 
ceding definitives : 

2><?r 6ofcn be$ $ifclKr£ gab bem T%e so« of the fisherman gave the 

$lad)bat ben $tf#. neighbour, the fish. 

2)te ©cJwejter bev Kbtliflinn ^ab The sister of the queen gave the 

bat ©elb ben ^trmen. money to the poor. 

Unfet* #reunbe fennen bie 25viiber Our friends know the brothers of 

biefe$$?anne$Un&bie<5cfM?e!rern this man and the sisters of this 

biefer $vau. woman. 

$iet lit ber 5J?ann # Wel#er metnen Here is the man who teaches my 

SBruber lebft, linb Weldben metn brother, and whom my brother loves 

2>ruber fo Iiebt. so much. 

25iefen Jtauftnantl empfabl i# 7%w merchant I recommended to 

memem 2>ntber. my brother. 

2)tefem J^aufmanne empfa^I \ty To this merchant I recommended 

metnen Sfruber. my brother. 



THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

The declension of the German substantives is various and 
intricate : however, the oblique cases (genitive, dative, and 
accusative) of both numbers are pretty uniform, and will be 
brought under four simple rules (§ 44). It is in the nomi- 
native plural that substantives differ most ; and the forma- 
tion of this case depending, in a great degree, on the gender 
of the noun, we shall first treat of the gender, then of the 
plural, and lastly of the cases. 

GENDER. 

§ 31. The gender follows the sex of the noun (§ 32), as in 
English ; but inanimate things, which in English are all of 
the neuter gender, are in German, as in most other Ian- 



60 GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 32. 

guages, distributed among all three genders ; as for instance, 
fcet ©tein, the stone; bit Zi)iiV, the door ; ba$ $Wftlt, the 
window. — ©tetn therefore is, grammatically, considered as 
a male, and Xf)UV as a female ; though they are destitute of 
sex. Gender, when it arises from sex, is called natural ; in 
other cases, grammatical. The latter depends in German 
mostly on the termination of the word ; namely, whether it 
ends with, or without, a servile syllable; and, in the former 
case, with what servile syllable it ends (§§ 34, 35, 36). The 
prefixes have no influence on the gender, except #e (§ 36, 
rule 3). Compounds adopt the gender (as well as the declen- 
sion) of their last component parts ; as, ba$ 2totltttbl } the 
olive oil ; b$X Qdbaum, the olive-tree — Qd being neuter, and 
^Saum masculine. 

SEX, or NATURAL GENDER. 

§ 32. Substantives denoting males are masculine, and 
those denoting females are feminine ; as, ber 93?ann, the man ; 
biX ©ofctt, the son ; @arl bet Stinfte, Charles the Fifth ; bit 
~H>ibber, the ram — bk ffidli, the woman ; bk Softer? the 
daughter; (Satijarina bk (£vj?e, Catherine the First ; bk 
3)?ufe, the muse ,- bk .jjemie, the hen. 

Except, a.) ba$ SBeifr, the wife; ba$ ^ettfej), the wench* ; and the 
compounds ba^rauenjtmmer, the lady; btX$ SBeibSfcilb, the woman; 
bai ^antt^bilb, the man ; etne ^ann^per^Cn, a person of the male sex; 
bie (Scf)tlbroa$e, the sentinel ; — which, like all compounds, have the gen- 
der of their last component part. 

b.) The diminutives, which are all of the neuter gender; as, £>a$ 
9)tann#en or TOnnlein, the little man; bao ©diwefterchen, the little sister; 

ba£ £Ute ^an»d?en, dear little Jack; — hence also, 5Jtab#ett, girl; and 
^yrauldtl, an unmarried lady of nobility, also Miss, are neuter, being, 
etymologically, the diminutives of 5Vag&, maid, and $ratl, lady, woman. 

Obs. Substantives, both appellatives and proper names, are rendered 
diminutives by annexing cfeil f, or rein — see the above examples. The 
diminutives in #en are of general use ; those in letn are confined 
chiefly to poetry. Both formations are attended by the vowel inflec- 

* 2>er -JJJcnfd) denotes man, human being. 

f It is the same as the English termination kin in lambkin, mannikin. 



§ 33.] GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 61 

tion; thus, bet* ^iflltn, theman—batW&ntUfym, or Wdnnltin, the little 

man ; eitie Xoefoter, a daughter— tin Xocbtercfcen, or £b'#terlein, a little 
daughter. If the substantive terminates in $ or 3, el is inserted between 
the root and the termination #ett; as, 29u#, book— 2)U#el#en, a little 
book; <King, Wng— 9ftngelC&en, « ##fe nVzg. The annex cfren is also 
added to some plurals in er (§ 40), and to Ofllte, people; as, 9)?anner$en, 
little men; Qingevifyen, little things, &c. ; QeUtdtM, little people. Some 
substantives terminating in en, and all those terminating in f, drop these 
endings when rendered diminutives; as, tin ©avtfjjetl, « little garden; 

tin £na6cf?en, or itnabfein, a /itffe 3oy; from ©arten, £nafre. The 

diminutive conveys often the idea of playful endearment; as, ^?UttCV= 
Cfrett, dear little mother ; — sometimes of contempt ; as, ba§ ;3)tann$en, the 
little conceited man ; tin fUffeS £en'#en, a young fop. 

§33. The sex is distinguished, 

1. In many cases by appropriate words; as, 2?ruber, 
brother — ©cfwefter, sister,- 2D?Ctnn, man — With, wife,- .gerr, 
master •, lord — ffidll, mistress, lady*; better, male cousin — 
¥lJI\\1)VM, female cousin; — and several others, which, having 
for the most part corresponding appropriate words in En- 
glish, may easily be found in the dictionary. 

2. In most other cases, however, the female sex is de- 
noted by the ending inn (or in) being added to the mascu- 
line substantive ; as, em $teunb, a friend (in general), or a 
male friend — Cine ^retmbmn, a female friend; ^Otttg, king 

— ^bnt^inn, queen ; etn @&rtfr, a christian — erne S&rtjfmu, 
a christian woman ; etn (Sn^lanbet*, an Englishman — etne 
(£n$lan£>erimt, an Englishwoman. The final e of the mas- 
culine is dropped in the feminine substantive ; as, etn Oiltfje, 
a Russian — etne Ofafprnij a Russian woman. Many of these 
derivatives receive also the vowel inflection ; as, @raf, count 
— ©raftnn, countess; em ^van^ofe, a Frenchman — eine $ran= 
^bftnn, a Frenchwoman. Masculines ending in tXiX generally 
drop one it in the feminine form ; as, bet* %a\\hzXiX, ine en- 
chanter — bit 3&u6erimi 9 the enchantress. 



* $va\x is also used in opposition to gjjnnn ; but it is only applied to mar- 
ried women, and, in general, conveys an idea of respectability. 



62 GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 33. 

3. The following words derived from foreign languages have irregular 
terminations in the feminines : 

Males. Females. 

S5aron, baron; SfarOnefTe (also jgaronimt), baroness. 

iprttlg, prince ; ^rinjeifinn, princess. 

5(Cteur, actor; 9(ctl'ice, actress. 

$bt, a66o£; 2lebttf]"inn, aJ^«. 

€anontCU5, canon; (Sanoniffin, canoness. 

(BOUPCVneur, governor ; ©CUP ernante, governess. 

Obs. The title indicative of a man's office or occupation (which in 
German is also given to his wife) is rendered feminine by the addition 
of inn, even with such nouns as, in other cases, use different ter- 
minations, or appropriate words, for their feminines ; as, 9vatf)^err, city 
senator, or alderman — .^Katt^errtnn (and not 9Jat&$frau), the wife of such 
a person; Ajauptttiann, captain— £auptmanntnn, the wife of a captain ; 
though the correspondent feminine nouns of .£au6berr, master of tlic 
house, and ©belmann, nobleman, are $aU6frau, and (JbelfraU; because 
these names do not arise from the office of the husband. Hence there 
is a distinction between bte £ammer&errinn, the lady of a chamberlain, 
and bte Rammcvftau, the waiting-gentlewoiiian at court ; bte ©efanbttnit. 
the lady of an ambassador, and Me ©efanbte (see § 52), a female ambas- 
sador ; bie $lebtinn, the wife of a protestant abbot, and bit* 9Iebtiipnn, the 
abbess. — £anb$manntnn, a countrywoman, a native of one's own country, 
is however used with reference to herself, and applied even to unmar- 
ried women. — The feminine of $re$err, Baron, is designated indiscri- 
minately by $tei&errinn, and $reifrail ; and often also by a third name, 
ftreiinn. 

4. In the following few cases the nouns denoting the males are de- 
rivatives of those denoting the female sex, or the species: 

bte SflUbf, the pigeon; ber SflUber, the cock pigeon. 

bte £a$e, the cat ; ber Jfater, the male cat. 

b'lC 25raUt, the bride; ber 2>railtiyam, the bridegroom. 

bte 2Bittroe, the widow ; ber 2Bitttt> er, the ividower. 

bte ©an£, the goose; ber ©anfericfc, the gander. 

bie @nte, the duck ; ber @nteri#, the drake. 

5. With many names of species the sex is distinguished by adding some 
sexual attribute, — such as Wdt\t\d)(t\, male, and 2Peifr#en, female ; jgotf , 
buck, and £uf), cow; £a&n, cock, and £jenne, hen: as, ein 9la(l)t'\$aW 
inann#en, a male nightingale ; bCV cRcfabotf, the roebuck; bie 0irfcl)f U&, 
the doe. But very frequently the mere name of the species, if mascpline, 
is, without any addition, also used to denote the male; whilst the female 
is distinguished by the annex inn. Thus ber 2'6rvc, the lion; ber £nmb, 



§ 34-.] GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 63 

the dog; ber 2Bolf, the wolf, apply both to the male, or to one of the 
species without regard to sex ; but bie C'ottunn, bie $iinbinn, bie W6\f- 
inn, signify the females of those species. In a similar manner the 
names of male persons, of which the feminine is formed by inn, are 
also used to express the generical idea without any reference to sex ; 
as, 3)er e>#ailfpieler rmtj? bie 9?atur fhlbiren, the actor (actress not ex- 
cluded) must study nature ; §ettUtt$ iff bem Gfmffen fttbcttn, humility is 
commanded to the Christian. Therefore, the plural of such masculines — 
as for instance, bit? ^adb&aw, the neighbours, bie $mmbe, the friends, 
&c. — does not strictly exclude the females, unless explicitly contra- 
distinguished by the feminines in inn; as, aile 9?a#barn unb SRafy 

fravinnen, all male and female neighbours. 

6. A few substantives are common to both sexes without any altera- 
tion, merely changing their gender according to the sex they denote: — 
ber $at&e, the godfather, or godson — bk $atfce, the godmother, or god- 
daughter; ber Mnbel, the male ward*—bk SDiUnbel, the female ward; 
frer 2Baife, the male orphan* — bie 2Dflife, the female orphan. 

But the following substantives are used for both sexes without even 
changing their gender : ber $aftarb, the bastard; ber ©aft, the guest; 
ba$ £inb, the child; ber SKenfcfr, the human being; ber 5Umbe, the cus- 
tomer; bit $erfon, the person; ber QJil^rtm, the pilgrim; ber S^^> & e 
witness ; and perhaps a few others. Further, most nouns in ling, as 
ber %'unbtm^ the foundling; ber Cte&ling, the darling; ber 3^9 l J n 9» rt e 

pupil ; ber Shilling, the novice, &c. 

THE GRAMMATICAL GENDER, 
or the gender of nouns which are either destitute of sex, 
or in which the sex is not regarded, being the names of 
species, or of aggregates. 

§ 34?. Of the masculine gender are : — 

1. Most substantives which have no servile terminations 
(§ 12); that is, which are either monosyllables, or dissylla- 
bles beginning with a prefix ; as, ber ^UlJ?, the river ; ber 
©tehl, the stone; bet ©cfcmtt, the cut; ber £>etta#, the amount; 
tit 2?erjranb, the understanding. 

This, of course, applies also to all compounds; as, ber 
Mag, the occasion; ber 5UtfcntJalf, the abode, stay; ber 

@omievMntera,an#, the sunset; ber @e(ic()t3frei», the horizon, 
&c. — the last component parts (which alone determine the 

* Many authors, however, use bet ^iinbef and bte SGrtife for both sexes. 

g2 



64* GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 34. 

genders of compounds, see § 31) being, £ag, (£ml)alt, ©atlfl, 

This rule, which comprehends a very large -portion of 
the German substantives, has, however, many exceptions ; 
which, with the omission of those of rare occurrence, are 
given below *. To these must be added the monosyllable 
feminines and neuters mentioned in § 40. as forming their 
plural irregularly ; and the substantives beginning with ge* 
which are, for the most part, neuter — see § 36, rule 3 f. 

2. All substantives with the servile termination ing, or 
ling; as, fcer fiMriQ, the herring; be? $tifyling, the spring; 
&c. — Except ba$ 3JJ?efTm#, brass. 

3. All substantives terminating in en; as, bet ©attett, 
the garden; peV Segett, the sword. 

Except a) The diminutives in #en (§ 32, Obs.). b) Infinitives used 
as substantives (§ 36. Obs. 2.). c) The following neuters : ^Hrnofen, 
alms ; 2)CCf en, basin ; ^tfeit, iron ; (Srattien, examination ; $Uffen, colt ; 
^ilfen, cushion; Beinen, linen; Omen, owera; tyfydncmen, phenomenon ; 
happen, coatf of arms ; 3ficfKn, «g». — No feminine ends in en. 

4. Most substantives terminating in el ; as, bet $iXQtl 9 ^ 
fo7£,- ber £cffe! 5 ^<? spoon. 

* The following are feminine : 2Inbad)t (but ber 5Bebadf)t, bet 9Serbad)t), Mm 
flfllt, atntiDOtt, 9Xrt, 23af>n, Sat, SBeicfyt, SBtrn, SSrunft, 23rut, S3ud)t, 93urg, 6f;ur, 
<5ur, 2)urd()(aucf>t, dnnfaft, gafjrt, Slur, 5(utl), #orm, %tad)t, Sttfl> Sufjr, gurd)t, 
©egemuart, ©irfjt, ©tec, 0(utf), ©unfr, £afl, £ul&, 3ad)t, 5agb, &ofr, Snft, Sift, 
SKifcfc, gJiitx, 9?ad)rtd)t (but ber SBcrtdjt), g?ad)tigair, Storm, 3?ott)bucft, $ein, $eft, 
g5jTtd)t, $o(l, *prad)t, £.uaf, 9?afr, 9fitctfef)r (but ber SBerfef>r), 9?uf)r, ©ant, @3>am, 
@df)ar, ©cfyau, @d)eu (but ber -2t6fcf)eu) ®d)id)t, ©d)lacf)t, ©dbfudbt, @cf;mad), @d)rift, 
<&d)uit), @rf)ur, ©id)t, ©preu, ©pur, ©tirn, ©treu, @ud)t, Xfjat, £l)ur, Sour, £rad)t, 
SErift, ttfjr, Unoiir, SSernunft, 2Jerjid)t, 2Gnr;f, SBefjr, SBeft, 20infiu)r, SBucfo 2ButI>, 
3<W, Beit, 3ter, 3ucf)t 

The following are neuter: 2Ig, Suigenmerf, 23eet, SBeif, 23ein, 23efre<f, 35ter, Sfecb, 
SSiet, 5B(ut, 93oDt, 23rob, <£it, (?rj, Sell, Jeft, 5feifcf>, gffiep, ®<»«i, 0a$, ©teiS, ©dice, 
©olb, ©ran, ©rof , £aar, £ar?, £eer, £eh, £eu, £irn, Safjr, Sod), itinn, ftnie, £reuj, 
2aut> (foliage), 2od, SddS, 2otf>, SKflffc «JKn#, ^efjf, Sffttet, Wooc, 9Rop$, 9?e*5, 3?iet, 
£>bft, £)ef, £f)r, $aar, Sped), $ferb, «pfunb, ^putt, auart, 9?ef), 9feid), 9?te0, 3?o&r, 9?efe 
@a(?, ©d)af, ©d>a^, ©djijf, ©d)mat$, ©d)meer, ©d)ocf, ©djrot, ©d)ii>etn, ©eU, ©tep, 
©pie(, ©tro^, ©tiicf, 2au, Slater, Zf)ot, ttrt^etf, 55eroot, Herbert, SBerf>or, SSief), 2Bad)g, 
SBerft, «H3ern, 50crf, 8Btib, 50i(boret, Belt, 3eug, 3te(, 3tnn. See also § 36. Obs. 3. 

f Notwithstanding the great number of exceptions, this rule will be found 
highly useful : it contains about six hundred simple nouns of common occur- 
rence ; and, considering the very great number of compounds of which the last 
part is a monosyllable, it may be safely asserted, that the gender of several 
thousand substantives is ascertained by this rule and its exceptions. 



§ 85.] GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 65 

Except a) Nouns beginning with ($e or ending in fet, or in Ul if im- 
porting a numeral fraction ; which are all of the neuter gender (§ 36, 
rules 1, s and 4). b) The following neuters : (Sapttel, chapter; (Srempef, 
example; $txX?U farrow ; Qtyd, barrel ; SDJtrafel, miracle ; Wtttel, 
means; DtaUl, oracle; @cbarmu$el, skirmish; @egCl, sail; ©iege(, 
seal; Ue6e(, evil; 2Biefef, weasel, c) The list of feminines subjoined 
at the foot of this page *. 

5. The greater part of the substantives terminating in ev ; 
as, bet 4 Summer, the grief > ber .gammer, ^e hammer, — But 
this rule, too, has a long list of exceptions, which is given 
below f . 

See § 37, rules 3, 4, which also contain some exceptions 
to the preceding rules. 

§ 35. Of the feminine gender are : — 

1. All substantives with the servile terminations tyeit, 
fcit, fefcaft, un#, and et (or ei;); as, bte ©ei^eit, wisdom ; bte 
2£id)ti#fett, importance; bte ^mtnbfdbaft, friendship; bte 
.goffnung, hope; bte g-tfcfcetet, the fishery.— Except fca$ ^Pet- 
fcfjaft, the seal; and bet .£J0ft1lU1g 9 the old name of the month 
of February. 

2. All substantives terminating in e ; as, tie 30tefe, the 
meadow ; tie Otofe, the rose; bie @iite, goodness. 

Except a) Most substantives with the prefix ge (see rule ?>, § 36). 
b) Adjectives in their neuter gender used as substantives ; as, t>a$ ®cl/rilU% 

* 9W>fe(, Stmfel, Slngef, Suirifef, 33i6el,(Slaufe(,<5t)m&et, ©nttcf, ©etc&fef, £>ifW, 
Srofiel, (?td)el, (Fpiftel, Sfl&el, Sadef, $aibei, Si&ef, Stebel, Sifter, SloSfel, Sormel, 
5uc^te(, ©rt6c(, ©eigel, ©onbel, ©urge!, £ecf)et, pummel, £yperoef, Snfel, Rabti, 
8ad)ti, £<insel, ftrtpfef, ftnrtoffel, ftlingel, £ugef, Puppet, gftnnbel, ^QJifpef, 9ttiftef, 
9Jcord)e(, gRuf^ef, Stfrtbel, StfeiTel, sftejW, gtubel, £>rge(, ^Srtppel, ^5ara£»et, ^artifel, 
9?anunfe(, 9?afpel, Sfegef, 9?unjel, @d)rtd)te(, ©cfynufel, @d)aufef, @d)inbel, ©djiiffef, 
€?emmet, @id)e(, ©piubel, ©taffel, ©toppel, ©triegel, £<ifef, £arantef, £n>bbel, 
SEtommef, Sruffel, 5Qad)te(, 30nffe(, 2Qeid)fel, SKHnbel, Sffiurjel, Sottel, Swiefief. 

f Of the feminine gender are : 9Iber, atelfter, Simmer, 2Jufter, S3tntter, Gutter, 
Snuer, (Jffaber, Safer, Seber, Seier, Si&er, Salter, £alfter, £euer, £olfter, hammer, 
better, ^Infter, £fnmmer, flapper, Snuer, 2e&er, Setter, 2et)er, barter, $Jcafer, 
gjrnuer, SOcetnpfjer, Matter, Summer, Dper, Drber, Otter, 9?f)abrtr6er, 9?iifrer, @d)eucr, 
€fcl)(euber, @d>u(ter, £rauer, 3Befper, SBiper, 5Bimper, Safer, Seber, Siffer, Sitter. 

The following are neuter : 2lDenteuer, s 2Iiter, SBarometer, Gruter, Senjler, Seuer, 
Ste&er, Suber, Sutter, ©ntter, ©ttter, Softer, £upfer, Sager, Snfrer, Seber, Suber, 
Salter, SDcteber, gRunfter, Stfufter, Dpfer, £)rd)efter, Rafter, ^5ult>cr, 9?egijTer, 
9?uber, ©ilOer, Renter, Xffermometer, ttfer, Ungef)euer, SKnffer, better, SQunber, 
Simmer. Besides those beginning with the prefix ge. 

g3 



66 GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 36. 

the beautiful (see § 52). c) The few following substantives : ba$ $hlye, 
the eye ; bat 25ef#(diye, brass edgings ; bd$ @ttbf, the end; ba$ @vbe, 
the inheritance; bd§ fiinak, the finale ; ba$ 3ttteref]>, the interest ; ba$ 
-^erfpnale, ?Ae members of a body collectively; bet Raft, the cheese; and 
the few names of animals mentioned in § 44 ; as, ber 9l?fe, fta fl^e, &c. 
(See also Obs. 2, § 45). 

Obs. Most feminines of this, as well as most of the monosyllable fe- 
minines of the foregoing section, denote abstract ideas ; but the femi- 
nines in el and er (see the notes of the preceding page) are, for the most 
part, names of things. 

§ 36. Of the neuter gender are : — 

1. The few substantives terminating in tfytlttT, fal, or fel; 
as, ba$ (^riflemjntm, Christendom; ba§ .ge^oc^tmt, the 
dukedom or dutchy , ba$ ®c()i(ffal, the fate; fc>a£ 9?atf)fel, the 
riddle.— -Except fc>er 9?eicf)t()um, the riches ; fc>et 3trtbum, the 
error; frer ©topfelj the cork. 

2. The greater part of the nouns terminating in nif? ; as, 
fca3 (Be^etmmj?, the secret; t>a$ ©ebacjrtnig, the memory. 

Except the following, which are generally used in the feminine gen 
der : 35ebrattgnt§, grievance, distress; ^eftlgmf, competence, authority , 
¥) tftimmexnifi, trouble ; 25 'eforyftif, apprehension; 2>etru6nif, affliction, 
¥y?(0anbtm%, condition, conjuncture ; (^ttipfangmf?, conception; (frfetUU 
tti£, recognition (but ba$ 2)efenntttt£, confession); (grlaubtl!^, permis- 
sion; $a\\\\\\$, putridity ; $'\X\\llXX\\§, darkness; £entttni£, knowledge ; 
S.timmtXM$, care, grief ; &i\\mm% delay ; $erbammni£, damnation; 
2Btlbm£, wilderness. 

Obs. 1. Several authors use also some others of this termination in 
the feminine, which, however, are more commonly found in the neuter 
gender. With 25egeylli£, occurrence; 2?erberbni£, corruption; Wex- 
faiirntlif, neglect, usage is not decided, these nouns having as often the 
feminine as the neuter gender.— No masculine ends in nif?. 

3. The substantives beginning with the prefix #e; as, 
ba$ ©emalbe, the picture; ba3 ©efpradb, the conversation ; 
fca3 (SeWNJfcn, the conscience; ba$ @e6tf$e, the chain of moun- 
tains. 

Except a) The following masculines : @c6rattd(), «s<?, custom; (&Z-. 
banU, thought; (StfattW, favour, pleasure ; @tt)att, salary ; ©e&Orfattt, 
obedience; (3d a$ t house-room; ©enuf, enjoyment ; @mi#, smell; ©€' 



§ 36.] GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 67 

fang,*o«g; ©efdbmacf, taste; i&eftanf, bad smell; ©ewinn, or©ewinnfr, 

profit, b) The following feminines : ©ebevbe, gesture; ©e&Ur, fee, 
duty; ©t'&UVt, &r*A; ©eblllb, 'patience; ©ffafjr, danger; ©emeinbe, 
community; ©ettUCje, sufficiency ; ©efcfoicfcte, history; (S)?fd)\VUl\t, sivell- 
ing, tumour ; ©ejtalt, figure, shape ; %?V0<X\t, force ; ©eitfafrr, security — 
and all those terminating in fjeit, fdt, fcfrtf ft, and tiny ; which have the 
gender of their termination; as, bk ©elegenfrett, the opportunity; bk 
©efefffcfcaft, *£<? company; bk ©eneflWg, ffe recovery, &c. 

4. ,A11 diminutives ; all nouns in td denoting numeral 
fractions ; and the names of the letters of the alphabet ; as, 
ba£ (gtabtdjen, the little town (see § 32, Obs.); ba$ 2?iertel, 
the quarter; ba$ 5ltf>td, the eighth part; cin §XQ$i$ % a 
capital A; ba$ betttfcfee 3> ^ German Z. 

5. All words used as substantives, though properly be- 
longing to other parts of speech ; as, t>Ct$ 38entt unb ba§ 
5l6er, #*<? JT"^^ the But; fein liefce^ 3$, his dear self; ba§ 
£etoof)l, the farewell. 

Obs. 2. Hence all substantives that are in form not different from 
infinitives of the same root, are of the neuter gender ; probably from 
their having been originally infinitives used as substantives, although 
many of them have now a more extended signification than the verb, 
and some are even used concretely; as, ba§ s Bcxf(f)Cn, the mistake; ba§ 
^(nfe^en, the respect, consideration; bd$ £e6CM, the life; bfl$ 2)afeptt, the 
existence; ba$ $t?rmdgett, the ability, the property ; bd$ (Sffen, the eating, 
the dish; b<X$ Wltta^Tw, the dinner; b<X$ 'IDefcn, the being (from the 
obsolete infinitive, W efen, to be); ba$ @#rd&en, the writing, the letter, &c. 
— the verbs of these substantives being vetftfyen, to mistake ; anjV$en, to 
look at, &c. 

The following, however, are of the masculine gender, according to 
the analogy of their terminations (§ 34, rule 3), though they are exactly 
like the infinitives of nearly the same, or a kindred import : be r 29ratett, 
the roast meat ; 2>r0(fen, morsel, crumb; ©efatten, obligation; ©rafren, 
ditch; £)Ufren, cough ; dlit^tX, use, profit ; ©C&fl&en, injury ; ©fatten, 
shade, shadow; @C&llt($jjen, hiccup; <&#ttUpfen, cold in the head; 
Svopfen, drop ; 3flpftn, spigot. — If these words have the neuter gender, 
they are merely infinitives used substantively; as, ba$ jSraten, the roast- 
ing ; bay £)Uf?en, the coughing, &c. 

Obs. 3. For the same reason, those substantives are neuter which, 
in form, are like adverbs and uninflected adjectives of similar significa- 
tion; as, bd$ 9tttf)t, the right; ba$ fittt, the fat ; ba$ 2B0&I, the welfare; 
ba$ Uebel, the evil; ba$ (5lcnb, the misery ; bd§ %bC\\b\'Cty, the evening 



68 GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. [$ 37. 

red; ba§ Berliner 25lau, Prussian blue, &c. Except ber @rit|r, seriom- 

tiess; ber ©e&orfam, Me obedience; ber (Sram, the grief ; bte ©cbeu, s%- 
«m, azt'e; and perhaps a few others. 

Ofo. 4. Numbers used as substantives are also neuter, agreeably to 
the above rule; as, bdx> £)ttnbert, the hundred; b<X$ ^adrfiinf, the space 
of Jive years ; bil5 (5iri!> *, the one. But the names of written figures, 
or the number of pips on playing cards, are feminine; as, eine (5in£, a 
figure of one; eine Otdmtfcbe $Unf, a Roman five; bte Garreau (Steven, 

the seven of diamonds ; bte 9Eull, the cipher. 

Note. — Respecting the monosyllable neuters and those in ev, see the 
exceptions to rules 1 and 5 of § 34. 

§ 37. SUBSTANTIVES OF MORE THAN ONE GENDER. 

1. With some substantives usage varies in regard to the gender; as, 
ber or ba$ @f)0r, the choir, the place where the choristers are seated (when 
signifying chorus, it is generally masculine) ; ber or ba$ potter, the yolk 
of an egg; bei' or bte flitter, the spangle; bet or bai ^Vtefel, the purples ; 
bet or bie $afpel, the reel,yarnwindles ; ber or ba§ £)eft, the handle, also 
a few sheets of paper stitched together ; bie or b<X5 SOiflnbel, a number of 
15 (when signifying an almond, it is always feminine); ber or bte ©djeitel, 
the crown of the head ; ber or, more generally, bfl» @cl)tlf, the reed, rush; 
ba$ or bte XrUbfal, affliction ; ber or ba$ UngejtUm, impetuosity ; ber or 
ba5 ;S3ad)J?ti)Uni, increase ; ber or bte 2Btmpel, the pendant, the streamer ; 
ber or biXy fyipttx, the sceptre ; ber or b&$ $0ll, an inch (when signifying 
toll, it is always masculine) ; and probably a few others. With these 
nouns the student can commit no fault in adopting that gender which 
accords with the preceding rules. 

2. Other substantives, which are indiscriminately used with the ter- 
mination e, or en, or without any servile termination, vary their gender 
accordingly; as, biC tyfyk, and ber 9(|>l, the awl; ber SHacfen, and bie 
25atfe, the cheek; ba$ @tf (as in ^)reietf, the triangle), and bte @Cfe, the 
corner; ber $i1lj, and bte $al$e, the fold, notch; bte #tOCfe, and ber 
tflotfen, the flake; ber or ba$ 3UK>el, and bie 3'uwele, the jewel; ber 

£olben, and bie £ol6e, the butt end; bie £ei|te, and ber Ceitf or Oeiften, 

the ledge; ber ^ittWCC^and bk ^tittroocfce, Wednesday; bit $fofre,and 

ber jpfoft or $fof?en, the post; ber $friem, and bie $f ri erne, the piercer, 
awl; ber Quaff, and bte Quajre, the tassel; ber Dueft, and bk Quelle, 
the well; ber 9ftg, and bie 9\ige 9 Me c/e/3f ; ber @palt, and bie ©paltf, 

* 2)te ©totfe fie bonnert ein mad)ttge$ (?in$, *Ae cfoc& pealed forth a thundering 
[note of] One. — Gothe. 



§ 37.] GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 69 

the crevice; ber %atfet\, or btt 3&$ ( as in ^feigadf, /fo trident), and bte 
3tftfe, the prong. 

Obs. 1. The following, which" are by some grammarians enumerated in this 
list, are more commonly used as distinct words, in their different forms, and 
distinguished thus : bet 3tn5, the rent — bte 3'nfe ( or more commonly in the 
plural, bte 3infen), the interest of money; bet 9?utn, destruction — bte 9?uine, 
tlie ruin, the broken remains of a building; bet Sorfceer (or Sorbet), the laurel 
■ — bte SotDeete, the laurel-berry. 

3. The following nouns vary their gender according to the difference 
in their signification: bte $(rmut&, poverty — bdS ^rttiutf), the poor col- 
lectively ; ber <8a\\b, the volume— bai 25atlb, the ribbon, tie; ber 2>ttcfef, 
the back, hump — bte 2)UCfel, the stud; ber 29ttnb, the confederacy — ba$ 

2?unb, the bundle; ber ©egenthetl, the adverse party— ba$ ©egent&eil, 

the contrary; ba$ ®tft, the poison — bte ©tft (in 3)?ttgtft), the gift; ber 
Jpaft, the clasp, the hold—bk #aft (but ber 2?erfjaft), the arrest; ber £)Utt) 

(or ^ut), the hat— bie #ut&, te?; ber J?aper, a privateer— bit £aper, 
caper; ber liefer, the jaw— bk Prefer, the pine-tree ; bte Mrt, ^e p<»- 

session by feudal right — b<X$ Gebtt, ^tf estate held in fee; bit Getter, the 

ladder— ber Getter (as in Wetter), the conductor; ber Mangel, want — 

bte Mangel, a rolling press ; bte tylaxt, the mark, boundary— ba$ SStaxt, 
marrow; ber SD?atfctJ, the march— bk 3J?arf#, the fen ; ber SJfofr, ^ 

(.?^>'s) warf- -bte SDJaf?,- was*, /r^; ba$ 2)Jeffcr, *fo &m/e— ber defter 
(as in 2)ur#mefTer), ™<?fcr; ber^acf, the bale—ba§ $acf, « £>ac£, 

rabble; ber ©C&tlb, tf^ shield— b(X§ ©#ttb, $e s%« o/ a //owse; ber 
©#ttWl|r, bombast— bk ©cjwillir, or rather ©efcfcrMtlft, ^e sivelling; ber 
©CWpet, a scruple, doubt— ba§ ©mtpel, a scruple, iveight ; bet ©ee, the 

lake — bte ©ee, the sea; ber ©profle, *fo shoot— bte ©profje, tae step o/« 

ladder; b<X$ ©tetter, the rudder — bk ©tetter, the tax; ber©ttft, a peg or 
bolt—ba§ ©ttft, charitable institution; ber $erbtet1f?, the profit— b<X§ s 2?er- 
btenj?, »im7; ber $om?anb, ^ pretext— bk 2?omianb, ^e /row* m/«//; 
ber 2Ba#£ (as in 3fawac&$, %wxoa$$) t growth— ba$ Wa<i)$, wax. 

See also Obs. 2 & 4, § 36, and § 52, which afford many other in- 
stances of nouns alike in form, but different in gender and signification. 

Obs. 2. Several substantives denoting both persons and things, have in the 
former signification the natural gender according to their sex, and in the latter, 
follow the rules and exceptions of the grammatical gender (§ 34 to 39) ; as, ber 
£un be, the customer — bie .ftunbe, knowledge; bet «£etbe, the heathen — bie £eibe, 
the heath; bet %t)Qt, the fool — brtS Ztjov, the gate; bet ©etget, the hostage — bie 
©etjsef, the scourge ; ber Grr&e, the heir — baS Grrfoe, the inheritance; bee ©efpiete, 
the playfellow — brtS ©efptete, incessant playing ; bet Segnt, the legate — bn£ Segnt 
(§ 38, rule 4), the legacy. 

4. Here may also be noticed a few substantives which change their 
gender in certain compounds, contrary to rule (§ 31) :— SUfutf), courage, 
mind, and most of its compounds are masculine ; as, ber ^CCfrttUttf), pride ; 
ber @be(mut(), noblemindedness, &c. : but the following are feminine: 



70 GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 38. 

Semutfj, humility; ©rcjsmutfc, generosity ; .ftleinmutfr (sometimes also 
masculine), pusillanimity; CangttUttf), forbearance ; ©anftmiltfr, meek- 
ness; @#tt?emutt&, melancholy; and 2Be()mW&, sadness.— X&etl, part, 
and most compounds with this noun, are masculine ; as, ber 2?ort()eil, 
the advantage; bet 9(nt&eU, the share, &c.: yet (£rbt&eil, hereditary 
portion; $0rbevtfjeif, fore-part ; £)intertf)eif, hind-part ; and ©egett; 
tjjeU, contrary, are neuter. — The compounds 9$ad)erl0bn, jsay /or 
making; $rbeit$lOf)n, wages; and XagelO&n, dfay wages, have more 
generally the neuter gender, though Cofjn, Aire, reward, and its other 
compounds are masculine. And lastly, DJeunatlge, lamprey, is feminine, 
though ba3 ;Huge is neuter. A few others, as bie ©$eu, shyness, and bcr 
3lr:f#eu, disgust, &c. have been noticed in the exceptions, § 34. 

§ 38. THE GENDER OF FOREIGN SUBSTANTIVES. 
Nouns adopted from foreign languages retain, for the most part, their 
original gender. But as, without mentioning the great number of ex- 
ceptions, the general learner cannot be supposed to be acquainted with 
the original gender of all foreign words, the following rules will be 
found useful ; particularly the third, which is most comprehensive. 

1 . Those which in German have become monosyllables, or which end 
in e, et, el (unaccented, see page 34.), en, er, must be arranged under 
the rules of §§ 34 and 35; as, ber $linft, the point ; bie $eriobe; bie 
^Olijet, the police; ber Setnpel; ber %\rtrt> the circle ; ber Orben, the 
order ; ber $b'rper, the body. The nouns deviating from these rules, as 
bie $orm, bk $abd, bat Xfjeater, &c. have been enumerated in the list 
of exceptions. 

2. Nouns terminating in cm, ant, ent(not in ment, see below, rule 4), 
jr, ut, are of the masculine gender ; as, ber Orf an, the hurricane ; b(Y 
Reliant, the folio ; ber (Sonfonant ; ber Orient ; ber Gontratf ; ber ^rrejt ; 
ber @ntfy\lfiatmut, enthusiasm; ber fiuyu$, luxury, &c— Except the 
following, which are neuter: Organ; %QV$e\\an, porcelain ; Gcnt'tngent; 

patent; $rafent; Xalent. 

3. Nouns terminating in ie, ion, if, W, tat, nj, are feminine; as, bie 
$&ilofep&ie, bie Religion, bie ^at&ematif, bie $atur, bie Unioerjitat, bk 
dorrefponbenj, bie fljrocinj.— Except, ber 2Irfenir" ; bat ©cnie, genius ; 
ber Scorpion ; ber $urpur, the purple ; ber ^(gur. 

4. Those terminating in ier, ment, and ma; em, Ottl, and urn, are of 
the neuter gender; as, bat papier, the paper ; bat (Compliment; bat 

dement; ba^I&ema; ba* ©pfrem; basStwiptom; ba$ Saturn; ba$ 

Collegium. — Except bie Lanier, the manner. 

Also most of those terminating in a\, at, eft, et, il (or ett, ill, see § 24), 
and it), are neuter; as, ba5 3'beal ; bat ©ignal ; bat Quabrat, the square; 
baS^uett; ba$@aftett; bat Sefret; ba$:£>uett; bas^op; bat (Swobidi 
bat 9Irc&to. 



§ 39.] GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 71 

Except ber (§an<if ; bet (Sfjornf ; tie ^fiovai; ber Dpaf ; ber ^3oca(, a drinking- 
eup ; ber Drnat, decorations, dress; ber £rnctat, #ie treaty; ber ^ngtfrrat, ffo 
magistracy; ber $(rtnetf, flannel ; berSomet; ber planet ; ber^ngnet; bie 9Jfts 
ftuett ; and all grammatical terms ending in ai and w, which, with the excep- 
tion of bn$ ©ufcfrantit) and bn$ Sibjecttu, are masculine; as, ber Sftotmnatto, ber 
©u6juncm>, ber &uni, ber 5Boca(, &c. 

§ 39. THE GENDER OF GEOGRAPHICAL PROPER NAMES. 

1. The proper names of countries and places are of the neuter gen- 
der; as, bas ©lutfftclje 9lrabiett, Arabia Felix; bat fcfrone ^talien, 

beautiful Italy ; bat grofc fionbott, great London; ba$ Cllte 3?0m, an- 
cient Rome. 

Except names of countries terminating in ei or ie ; as, bie SHkttncfyei, Walla- 
chia; bie Xiirfet, Turkey; bie 9?ormnnbie, Normandy; tie ^3tcnrbie, Picardy. 
Further, bie Grimm, Crimea; bie -fyamnmt) ; bie 2)aupl)tnee, JDauphiny ; tie Se* 
wante; bie 9)?otb<ut, Moldavia; ber 'JpefoponneS, the Peloponnesus ; ber Qaaq, the 
Hague; bie @d)tr<eij, Switzerland; bie £t)ri)( ; bie ^rtufitj, Lusatia; tie ^dU, the 
Palatinate ; bie ^ttorf, a county in the north of Germany ; ber 3?onigftetn ; and a 
few other districts and places in Germany of less note. 

2. Most names of foreign rivers not terminating in e are of the mas- 
culine gender ; as, ber (^w^xau the Euphrates ; ber @ange$ ; ber 3n« 
bus; ; ber 9?il, the Nile; ber (general ; ber Za\o, the Tagus ; ber @bro ; 
ber ^i|]"ifippi.— Except bk Xtber. 

But most rivers in Germany and its borers, as well as all those ter- 
minating in e, are feminine; as, bk 2)0ttCtU, the Danube ; bk ^Beidbfel, 
the Vistula ; bk 9J?0feI, the Moselle; bk X&emfe, the Thames; bk ©eine. 

—Except ber 9?6ein, the Rhine; ber 9)?ain, the Maine; berS'frtf'ar; 
ber Cecb ; ber Cetfje, Lethe. 

The names of the rivers of Russia are feminine if ending in a vowel, 
and masculine if ending in a consonant; as, bie 3)ttH'na, bk 9?en;a, bie 

2BoIga, &c. 2)er Piemen, ber Ural, ber 2>on, ber $rwf>, &c. 

Obs. The names of seas, gulfs, lakes', &c. being generally attended by 
an appellative (@ee, Wieet, vUceer&ufen, &c), adopt, of course, its gender; as, 
bie ^orbfee, the North Sea; ta$ GriSmeer, the Frozen Ocean; ber 2Jenetionifd>e 
^ttecrfcufen, the Venetian Gulf; ber @enfer;@ee, the lake of Geneva. The few 
names which are without any appellative, hav,e the masculine gender : ber 
€>unb, the Sound; ber 93e(t; bcr Hellespont, &c. — Except bnS Snttegat. 

3. The names of mountains are masculine (probably the masculine 
appellative $er£ being understood); as, ber $eftl», Vesuvius; ber^im- 
plon; ber 29rocfen ; ber #elifon; ber J^arg. 



The preceding rules, it is hoped, will leave the gender of but an incon- 
siderable number of nouns untouched ; which are best left to the learner's own 
observation. 

On the origin of Gender, as well as on its application to nouns destitute of 
sex, some observations will be offered at the end of the Etymology. 



72 PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 40. 

FORMATION OF THE NOMINATIVE PLURAL. 

Most substantives form their nominative plural by the 
addition of some letter or letters (e, en, 11, or ev) ; to which 
many nouns add, moreover, the vowel inflection: some 
form it solely by the vowel inflection. But in a great num- 
ber of nouns the nominative plural is like that of the sin- 
gular. 

§ 40. Concerning the addition of letters we have the fol- 
lowing general rule : — 

Most substantives of the feminine gender form the nomi- 
native plural by adding en to that of the singular ; and most 
masculines and neuters by adding e : as, 



Singular bie $X<XU, the woman. 


Plural tie #rauen. 


tie Stigenb, the virtue, 


bte Xugenben 


b'lC Ufjr, the watch, 


bte Ufiren. 


btX 2)£ry, the mountain, 


bte 2?erye. 


ber 9JJonat&, thejnonth, 


bie 2D?oitat(je. 


ba$ $ferb, the horse, 


bte $ferbe. 


bd$ %a$)Y, the year, 


bte 3'afcre. 



Exceptions, 
I. All substantives ending in e, el, en, er, or (ein, drop 
the e of inflection through the whole declension ; conse- 
quently, the feminities of those terminations add only n in 
the plural, the number of syllables remaining the same as 
in the singular ; — and the masculines and neuters add no 
letter*, and, therefore, unless distinguished by the vowel 
inflection (which is the case only with twenty-four mascu- 
lines and the neuter Softer, see § 41), the nominative plural 
is exactly like that of the singular ; as, bte ©cfwefrer, the 
sister / bte ©a6el, the fork ; bit 2)tltme, thejlower ; plur. bte 

©cbroefrem, bte ©afceln, bte Sftunten-— bet ©cfmetber, the 

tailor ; bet (gn^el, the angel ; bet Segetl, the sword ; t>a$ 

* The masculines in e, however, and a few in ei and er, add n — see a) and 
c) of the third exception. 



§ 40.J PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. 73 

Ofaber, the oar : ba$ ©emdlbe, the picture; ba§ gvautein, the 
young lady ; — plur. bie ©dnieiber, bte (?iKjd, bie Se^gen, bic 
Ofaber, bie ©emalbe, bte graulein. 

Obs. 1. The terminations of this exception are servile, and therefore 
unaccented :— leift, we may observe, belongs only to diminutives. This 
exception includes also foreign words with the final syllables, e, el, eit, er; 
however bet (S&arctCter ; ba$ $f)anomen, 'phenomenon; and a few neuters 
in el with the accent on the last syllable, as Cartel*; (SarrOllffti*, carou- 
sal, &c. all which add e: Sijaractere, $(>anomene, (Sartele, &c. Of the 

nouns in ter, those in which er forms a syllable of itself, as ^a\x\i\tX, patri- 
cian; ©panier, Spaniard ($11), belong to the exception ; all the others, 
as Dffuier, officer ; papier, paper, &c. the e being mute, and, conse- 
quently, the last syllable being ir and not er, cannot belong to the ex- 
ception, but add e according to rule. Nor can the nouns in ee, or te if 
forming one syllable (§11, rule 2), be understood as falling under this 
exception; for though, generally, the plural receives no additional 
vowel (§ 12, Obs. 2), yet these terminations always form two syllables 
in it; as, bk *l{xmM,army; bie X&eovie, theory; ba$ $nie, knee;— plur. 
^Irme^en, S&eovben, J^nt=e (see § 12, Obs. 2); whilst the nouns of the 
exception invariably have the same quantity of syllables in both num- 
bers. 

Obs. 2. This exception originated probably in the tendency of the 
liquids (I, m, n, r), if between two unaccented e's, to drop one of them; 
as we shall have occasion to notice in the adjectives and the verbs (see 
also § 29, Obs. 2): and, indeed, many masculines and neuters ending 
in ef, en, or er, had in Old German the regular plural in e. 

II. Of the feminities are further excepted : 

a.) Gutter, mother, and Softer, daughter, which make 
the plural ^titter and Xbc&ter. 

b.) The few feminines terminating in m§ (page 66), 
which add e in the plural; as, 23efor$l1t|?, anxiety; pi. 2te 
for^mffe. 

c.) The subjoined 34 feminines, all which add c, and, 
with the exception of CetttWanb, inflect the vowel; as, 5ljt, 
$raut; plur. $Iejte, SBrtiute: 



* Very often these words are written with if, Qaxttii, gnttouffettj &c. (see 
§ 24, rule 4.) 

H 



74 



PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



K 40. 



$U$fUld&t, evasion. 
$anf, bench*. 

25rattt, £n'cte. 
25ru|r, £rawf. 

^etier5bvtm|T, co^«- 



@an?, goose. 

ib e fcft \t> 11 I ]i, swelling. 
©rilft, vault, tomb. 



$ftaU$, mouse. 
9?acin, night, 
dlati), or 3?a&t, seam. 
9? lift »wi. 

©au, sowij:. 

©Cfrntir, rfrwg. 
©tabt, taw/w. 

©tatt, place. 

2Danb, wall. 

2Blirft, sausage. 
3unfr, guild, corpora- 
tion. 



£ani>, hand. 
£JiUlt, s£w. 
tflttft, a 7 <?/'. 
Stw ft, force. 
Stu'i), cow. 
tfunfr, «r£. 
£au£, /o«^e. 
Ceinwanb, &«e>*. 

£uft, air. 
Cliff, pleasure. 
5)?act)tt, power. 

05.?. 3. The plural of (Statt is found only in compounds ; as, 2>ettffatt, 
^ytviftatr, &c. The feminines 5(ng|f, anxiety; 9?0t£>, distress; and itunft, 
//z<? coining, belong also to this list; but the plural of the former two oc- 
curs only in the dative, in the expressions, in ^Cttglten, ill dlotbin, and 
the latter is found only in compounds which are seldom used in the 
plural; as, Sfafllltft, arrival; ^ttfammenfunft, meeting, &c. ; and in 
(i'infUnfte, income, which has no singular. 

III. The third exception consists of masculines and 
neuters which add en, or ev, instead of e. 

] .) The following add en (or n, if ending in e, el, ev — 
see Obs. 2.) :— 

a.) All substantives that add en in the genitive singular 
(see § 44, rule third) ; and, consequent^, also all the mas- 
culines in e, with the only exception of j\tife, cheese, 

b.) Nouns terminating in or, if they designate persons; 

as, doctor, ^vofeffbv; plur. ^octcven, ^rofeffoven. Except 

3)iajor, factor, agent \\, which have the plural -2)?aJ0VC, $CiC- 
tore- Those which do not denote persons follow the general 
rule; as, Sajtor, a beaver; OfatWOV; plur. @afrOVe, 9?ttmore. 
Obs. 4. Nouns from the Latin designating objects peculiar to the an- 
cients, such as certain magistrates, officers, or beings of their mythology, 

* In the import of bank its plural is regular, SSrtnfen. 

| £M;nmad)t, swoon, and SBoUtnndjt, power of attorney, havetbe regular plural 
in en. 

\ If importing the female of a wild boar its plural is regular. 

II 5<ictor signifying multiplicator in arithmetic, has in the plural Srrtetoren. It 
may also be observed, tbat those nouns in or which add en in the plural, always 
accent the penultimate (see § 20) ; whilst in the others the accent remains 
always on or ; as, Oftrtjo'r, 9?umo'r : hence 5<icto'r, agent — fta'ctM, multiplicator. 
Those in o'r are probably borrowed immediately from the French. 



§ 40.] PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. 75 

&c also add en ; as, gonful, Sribun, 9Utyur, (Satpr, #aun, ®amon,&«. 

plur. (Sonfulett or (SonfUllt (also in the modern sense of commercial 
officers), XribUlten, ^fttguren, &c. A few Latin nouns in oj, or il, add 
ten; as, Mineral, 3?ec$al or9?egale,^oifil;— plur. SWineralien^egaUfn, 

&c. dapitdi, capital, makes generally (Sapitalten if referring to money, 
and (Sapitaler, or (Sapttale, if referring to columns. See also § 42. Obs. 

c.) The subjoined list :— 

Masculines. 

^flUer, peasant. 9lati)bat, neighbour Stdat, state. 

2)tamant, diamond. (pi. iKad^barn). <Btm^l, beam, ray. 

$ft\TpOft, impost. ©ctymeq. pain. Untevtfran, subject. 

"5?afr, mast. (Bit, lake. %QV\at)V, predecessor. 

duffel, muscle. (SpOM, spur. Skvaify,. ornament. 

Neuters. 
$Uge, eye. @ttbe, enc?. Jrjet'3, /^ar/. £eib, suffering. 

2>ett, *<?d*. $embe, *». Snfect, ?««?<?*. D&r, ear. 

Obs. 5. With some nouns usage varies : the masculines better, cousin; 
^(Vatter, godfather; ©tachel, 5^'wg; §ttifel 9 boot ; ^atltCffel, */«jpjt><?r ,- 
add n in the plural; as, tie $ettew, bie ®evatte\'tt,&c; or remain un- 
varied,— bie better, tie ©eoatter, &c. X|»ron, jfArowe, and Effect, emotion, 
add €, or en. Those substantives which are used in more than one gen- 
der (§ 37) vary their plural accordingly; as, ber flitter, the spangle, 
plur. bit flitter— or bie flitter, plur. tie $littern ; ber 9?tg, the crack. 
plur. bie 3?ige— or bie Sft$e, plur. bie $i£en. Of Quell, fountain, and 
3utt> el, jewel, the plural of the feminine gender alone is in use, viz. 
Qtiellen and 3'UWClf tl. See also Obs. 2, § 46, and Obs. 2 and s, § 47. 

2.) The subjoined list of masculines and neuters, and all 
substantives terminating in tfyllttf, add zt with the vowel in- 
flection ; but it must be observed, that those of more than 
one syllable inflect the vowel of the last only ; as, bci$ £aniru, 
fc>er 2Balb; plur. bie Cammer, bie 2Balber : ba$ Slltevttjum, anti- 
quity s ba£ £>o$pttal ; ba3 j?amifbl; ba$ ^arlamcnt;— plur. bie 
5lltert&itmer, bk $o$pitaler, bk j?amtfbler, bk ^arlamemev. 

Masculines. 

©eifr, spirit. £etb, body. 2?0rWUnb, guardian. 

(§0tt, GW. tylax\\\\,man. 2Balb, forest. 

Sj\mb$fctt,mean rascal. 3i<M\b, edge. 2Butttl \, worm. 

* Some use the plural 25etten only, if signifying feather-beds, or the parts of 
bedding ; but in the sense of beds they say 25ette. 

f The ancient plural gftatinen is used sometimes by poets in reference to 
the vassals of a lord. 

| In elegant writing it has often the regular plural SCBiirme. 

h2 



76 



PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



[J 40. 



%<xi, carrion, 
% mt, r#ce. 

^ityenlieb, <?$«?-/«/. 

2fanb*, ribbon. 
)8\{b, image. 

25latt, /<?«/. 
25ret, ooard/. 
25uc&, 000*. 
25 ad>, rao/. 

2)aiJ^, cfeMce(at cards). 
Serf, village. 

(Si, egg. 

^yadb, department. 
$aff, cfl«&. 
$0, field. 
©fib, money. 
(Semac&, apartment. 
©emUtf), jwinrf. 
©ffcMecfrt, sea?, race. 
©eflC&tj/acef. 



Neuters. 
(Sefpeitjr, spectre. 
(Sewanb, garment. 
©la?, gfoss. 

©lieb, /iw£. 
©vab, graw. 
@ra?, grass. 

©lit, gootf. 

£)aupt, A<?flrf. 
£>au£, ^o?«<?. 

JpOlj, z#oo<f. 
$0m, Aora. 
hospital or j 
©pital, }*<«^ 
£u&n,/ow;/. 
tfalb, ca^. 
< ftarmfcl, i ;ae£tf. 
£inb, cMrf. 
£(eib, <fress. 

£om, grain. 

jlrattt, fori. 



Cicftt, #g^, candle %. 
£ieb, song. 
£od), Aofe. 

3J?aul, mouth. 

SKenfcfr, w<?«c^. 
9?e|r, wesf. 

-^arlament, parliament. 
%fat\b, pledge. 
Slab, wheel. 
Regiment, regiment. 

9?ei§, f«q£ 
Oftnb, weatf. 
©cfrilb, s%« o/#ra mot. 
©CfrlOfi, /oe£, castfe. 
©dfrwert, swora*. 
©tiff, institution. 
%fai, dale. 
%U$, cloth. 
2?0lf, nation. 

2Bamm£, jacket. 

2Bet&, woman. 



Obs. 6. Several others, as @tftHtty *Ar«6; Safciimt, cabinet; 59*f# s 
micbt, villain, &c. occur sometimes with er ; but more generally they 
have the regular plural in e. The following substantives, however, 
have both er and e, but each with a different import ; namely, the plu- 
ral in er is used distributively, to denote a plurality of individual defi- 
nite things, each of which the mind perceives separately ; and the plural 
in e, collectively, to denote an aggregate, in which the individuals it com- 
prehends are not distinctly perceived or noticed by the mind : — 

Sa£ Silly, the thing; plur. bie Singe, things in general — btC dinger, 
individual things. The latter plural implies, moreover, something of in- 
significancy. 

Ser SOW, the thorn; plur. bk Some, or more frequently Somen, 
thorns in general — Sbmer, prickles. 

Sa^ Canb, the country ; plur. bie Canbe, lands, tracts of countries, in- 
definite parts of the globe — £anbcv, distinct countries, divided from others 
by definite borders; as, (gx fat VHlt Ctin&er tmb ©tabte Qefeljen, he has 
seen many countries and towns. 

* In the import of lie, fetter, it makes 93nn&e, according to rule, 
f In the sense of vision its plural is regular, ©eficfyte. 

\ In the latter import it has, according to some grammarians, the regular 
plural Sicfyte. 



§ 41.] PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. 77 

2)er Drt, Me place; plur. Qettev, individual places — Ot'tC, indefinite 
places ; as, an (J 1 1 en Drten, eaery where ; also passages in books. 

1)ci£ !2Dovt, M<? word; plur. hotter, single unconnected words, as, 
for instance, in a dictionary — 2£0Vfe, words connected, as in a sentence. 

ISlafyl, meal, or monument, makes likewise, according to some gram- 
marians, 9J?af)le in a collective, and SWa&lW in a distributive, sense; yet 
both forms are often used indiscriminately. 2?le#, plate; ©ewtC&t, 
weight ; @faf)l, .*•&?<?/; ©tiicf, pieG£ ; and some other nouns, are in se- 
veral parts of Germany also used with plurals in e and f r, with some 
similar distinction of import; but in written language, these nouns 
have in general only e. The substantives £>ovn and Xltff) of the fore- 
going list, make $ome and Xu$e, if importing kinds of those substances. 

06s. 7. The compounds of 3J?atttt, man, distinguish likewise the two 
uses of the plural ; namely, they use banner in the distributive, and 
£eilte, people, in the collective, import. Thus the former plural is em- 
ployed with such compounds as denote men who do not form a distinct 
body, and therefore are not viewed collectively; as, @taat£mann, 
statesman; 23iebertnann, a sterling upright man; (SfKtttiUtn, husband, 

married man;— plur. ©taat^manner, 2>iebermanner, (?^emanner, hus- 
bands ((SfKfeilte, married people). £etlt(? is used with compounds which 
are often imagined collectively; as, ^inimermanit, carpenter ; Std\\\- 
mann, merchant; (vbelttiann, nobleman; ^lr6ett?mann, workman ;— plur. 
^immerteute, carpenters; itaufleute, merchants, &e. But these com- 
pounds, too, have banner in the plural, if they are used with numbers, 
or if the sex is to be contradistinguished ; as, brci 3tmmemianner, three 
carpenters; Snttelmannet* Utti> 2^ettetWetber, beggarmen and beggar- 
women. 



§ 41. With regard to the vowel inflection we observe: 

1. No feminines have the vowel inflection but those 
mentioned in the divisions a.) and c) of the second excep- 
tion § 40. 

2. No neuters have it but such as add ev (see the third ex- 
ception § 40), and these four : 5(rfcnal, arsenal; 2?00t, boat; 
^lof?, rafts J?lojter, convent j^-plur. 2lrfenale, 25ote (also 
SBoote), Slbge, JUbjftr. 

3. Of the masculines, the following have the vowel in- 
flection : — 

a.) All monosyllables, or dissyllables beginning with a 
prefix, which add e or ct in the plural; as, 2Bolf, wolf; 

H 3 



78 



PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



[§41, 



.gat, hat; ©e6flwc|>, custom; %BalC, forest;— plur. 2£bife, 
.giite, ©e6raadbe, Salter. Except 1.) the list given below 
in the note *, none of which inflect their vowels ; as, Xa#C, 
days; .gunbe, dogs; $lrme, arms; (gcfca&C, shoes; ^efacftc, 
visits; 2?erfad?e, attempts; ^ancte, points, &c. 2.) Those 
nouns whose plural can only denote different kinds; as, 
%la&^flax; Zalg, tallow,— plur. gtadbfe, £al#e. 



5.) The following list 



mtX,field. 
2tttar, altar. 
Wpfel, apple. 
SStfd&Of, bishop. 
*8oke\\, bottom. 
2? ruber, brother. 
(Sana I, canal. 
Carbmal, cardinal. 
QajteUan, castellain. 
(Sapellan, chaplain. 
(5^ Oral, choral music. 



©avten, garden. 
©rafren, rf«fcfc 
^afcn,joor^. 
&ammel, «/(?^r. 

jammer, hammer. 

£>anbel, o$m>. 
Mangel, cfe/^. 
Sftantef, c/o«£. 

^DiavfrJ^atT, marshal. 
5)?Craft, morass. 



Off n, ows. 

^allaff, palace. 

(Sattef, Wtf/<?. 

©eft a ben j damage. 
<&d)t\ab(l, beak. 
©dWyCr, brother-in- 
law. 
WateY, father. 



as, ^IccfcV, fields ; ^Si&iW, bottoms, &c. Those which have 
two inflective vowels, inflect the last only; as, ^lltave, @a= 

nate, &c. 

All the other masculines — that is, all which add en in the 
plural, or which have more than one syllable independent 
of a prefix, and are not contained in the preceding list, re- 
ject the vowel inflection; as, bev 5l6cnb 9 the evening; bet 
3Qtalev, the painter ; ber £na6e, the boy ; — plur. bit $lfknbe, 
Stater, j?na6en. 

Obs. l. In a few nouns usage varies ; thus $aben, thread, plur. ^a'ben 
or $aben ; <5§v§, shoot, plur. tScfrofTe or @cbo)Te ; $Sc$en,arch, plur. s £o- 
gen and 2)Cg?H (in the import of bow, or s^eetf of paper, the plural is 
always Imogen); iMben, shop, shutter, plur. Cabin and fiaben. Some 
writers, however, confine the plural J}aben to the import of shutters, and 
Cabcn to that of shops. 

Obs. 2. From the foregoing rules the learner will observe, 1.) That 

* These are : 21n(, 2lniua(t, 2lnrt, 23cruf, 2kfud), £>ady$, ©ocfjt, 2)oIdf), 1 3m£, 
©ertwiM, @mb, ©urt, ^&cmrf)> £uf, £unt>, ftnnU, &orf, £ra()ti, £<id)$, Saur, £ud)S, 
gRortb, $fit&, Sp f a u , ^fropf, ^an, $d(, qjunct, dunlm, @d)!utf, ©cfymutf, ©rfjuf), 
(gpalt, ©taar, ©toff, ©traufj, ostrich (if importing nosegay it makes ©trdufie), 
£<m, Sag, SBerfurf). 






§ 42.] PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. 79 

the plural formed by adding en, of whatever gender the noun may be, 
never admits the vowel inflection ; 2) That that which takes er, on the 
contrary, always inflects the vowel; and 3) That the vowel inflection is 
confined chiefly to monosyllables. 

Note. — In concluding the rules on the formation of the plural, it may 
not be amiss to observe, that the substantives which change their gender 
with their import (rule 3, § 37) form the plural according to the gender ; 
as, bte Better, the ladder, plur. bte BeiteM — ber Better, the conductor, plur. 
bte Better. Nor does the irregularity of one gender apply to the other ; 
thus, bat (Sdbilb, the sign of an inn, plur. bte ©Caliber— ber @cllttb, the 
shield, plur. regularly bte ©cbjlbe; bat 2)anb, the ribbon, tie, plur. bte 
25attbev, ribbons, and bie 2?anbe, the ties (page 76)— ber 2?vltlb, the volume, 

plur. b'xt 2>anbe. 

PLURAL OF FOREIGN NOUNS. 

§ 42. The preceding rules on the plural include nouns derived from 
foreign languages, as may be seen from some of the examples and ex- 
ceptions. We have, however, to notice some substantives which have 
retained a pronunciation, or a termination, unusual in German words : — • 

1. A few of the substantives received from the Latin, terminating 
in U0 or ttm, retain their Latin plural i and a; as, ber @anontCU$, the 
canon; ber ^CtltartU^, the actuary; ber 3)?Uf?0j£, the musician; ber 

©pn&tcuS, the syndic ;— plur. bie (Sanonict, 3tctuam, &c; bay factum, 
the fact, plur. bie %aaa ; bat $erbum, the verb, plur. bte $erca (or bat 
$erb, plur. bte 2?ev6e> 

But such plurals sound rather uncouth, and therefore, most words 
of these terminations form their plural by changing them into en ; as, 
%amkU$, iambus; RatC&itmut, catechism; Zljput, prototype; (SttlbiUttl, 
study;— plur. ^amfren, £ate#t5men, Xppen, ©tubieit. This is particu- 
larly the case if the terminations ut and um are preceded by a vowel ; 
as, bat &cnfi\iori\Ut\, consistory ; bat BtKettm, lyceum; bat ^nbtDtbuum, 
individual; ber ©entu£, genius, spirit* ;— plur. bie (Sonfijtcrten, Bpceen, 
^nbimbuen, ©enien. Thus also bat (Solfegitim, the college; bat %m> 

pftibilim, the amphibious animal; bat $vitU(eCUltm, privilege ; bat ®pm= 

iwfium j bat @«anc;eUum, the gospel; ber Stfotarius 5 , the notary, &c. 

Obs. The same analogy we perceive in those foreign words which are not 
used in the singular (§ 43), and were therefore originally borrowed in their 
plural form from the classic languages ; these have nearly all changed the 
original plural inflection into en; as, SInnafen, annals; 2uinnten, annuls ; 5n; 
ftgnten, insignia; 9?eprei7nlien, reprisals; 5Bc(]ctn(nlien, vegetables; •SRrttertrtfuMt, 
materials; Sngrebtenuen, ingredients; aifpecten, aspects; SprDgrcffen ; 2(cciben- 
jten, perquisites. (The last four examples are sometimes used in the singular, 

* Genius in the import of great talent is @enic (from the French), plural 
OenteS (dissyllabic). 



80 PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. [$ 43. 

but the plural is more frequent, and they were probably first used in that 
number.) So also all mythological names which are used only in the plural; 
as, bit spemtten, Penates; Ttaneti, Manes ; Snren, Lares, &c, 

2. The few feminines in it change likewise this termination into ett 
in the plural : Me Xbefts; Me ftvifit ; Me SoflS, the dose;— plur. bie 
S^efen, Strifen, 2)0fcn. Sometimes the original plural is retained : Me 
2>ofe», X&efe*. 

3. Some substantives of the neuter gender terminating in ma, derived 
from the Greek, either remain unaltered, or retain their Greek plural 

in ata: tflima, climate; £omma ;— plur. Me StUma or glimata; Me 
Stomma or ^ommata. Several others take en; as, $ri$ma, ^)?im; 
Ityantasma; £)oyma; panorama ,— plur. Me }Jri$meri, $&anta$m*n, 
2)o"gmen, ^aneramen. 

4. @fterub and (Serapb retain their Hebrew plural, (Sfjewbtrn and @e* 
rap&im. 

5. Masculines and neuters derived from the French, retain their ori- 
ginal plural in s, if they have retained their foreign pronunciation (see 

§io); as, oer ©cuoerneuv; ber 2}anquier, the banker; ber (Sompa^mcn, 

the partner ; bat Ronton, the pontoon ; bat <2>0Upev, the supper — plur. Me 

(SotioevneurS, 2?anquiev», &c. Some of them, as bat 2nitaiUon, bat 
SBillet, bet* ^Oftillon, and a few others, occur both with the French and 

German plural; as, Me 25atattten$ or SSatatlfone, bk 25iriet» or 25t(-- 
lete, &c. 

§ 43. DEFECTIVES IN NUMBER. 

Many substantives are, by the nature of their import, or by usage, 
confined to one number only. 

I. To the singular number are confined : — 

1, Most substantives denoting things which are considered as mere 
matter, or in a mass, or as indefinite aggregates, and which, conse- 
quently, cannot be joined with numbers; as, ©Clb, gold; ^tipfer, cop- 
per; Wl\3),milk; §tXtfy,straw; $anf,hemp; bk JKeiteret, the cavalry ; 
bat ©efi'nbe, servants (collectively); s 2$kf), cattle ; Db|f, fruit ; (§er|te, 
barley ; ©etveibe, corn, &c. Other nouns of the above description are 
confined to the plural number — see rule It. 

Except Grr&fett, pease; Sinfen, lentils; SBofyncn, beans; 2Bitfeti, tares; and 
SSeeren, berries (with all its compounds, as Soljnnnteljeeren, currants ; ©tndjefbecr; 
en, gooseberries, &c), which are used in both numbers, exactly as in English, 

Obs. 1. Some substantives of this nature, of which there is frequent occasion 
to distinguish different kinds, use the plural to denote a plurality of sorts ; as, 
Sftkilte, wines ; Qeimvanbe, linens, &c. But more generally the word ©attun.- 
geti, or 2Irten, is added for this purpose; as, inele ©etreifcenrten, many kinds of 
corn; D&flgnttungen, kinds of fruit. 

Obs. 2. Some collective nouns are indiscriminately used in the singular or 
plural; as, t>n£ -fyaat or bie -^nnre, the hair; &a§ Qiccatl) or He ©eratfye, implements; 



5 43.] PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. 81 

ba& (Jingerceibe or bie Gfingewetbe, £/ie entrails; ber 9?eid)tfjum or bie 9?eid)tl)iimer, 
riches; bn$ ©ctviirm or bie ©ewticnie, vermin; bie vBfamnfdjrtft or bte Mantis 
fcfyflften, troops; brtS ©ebcirm or bie ©ebarmc, *Ae bowels; and perhaps a few 
others. But with most aggregates of which there are several, distinct from 
each other, the two numbers are used with the same discrimination as in En- 
glish ; as, ©efettfcfyttft, society — ©efetffcfynften, societies ; ©eftirn, a constellation (of 
stars) — © eftirn e, constellations, &c. 

2. A great number of abstract nouns ; as, .^(ugfiett, prudence; (Sebtllb, 
patience; SBuKX), rage; @# am, shame ; (SehOrfattt, obedience ; tyxmtilfy, 
poverty, &c. Particularly most neuter substantives derived from infini- 
tives (§ 36, obs. 2) ; all nouns that begin with the prefix ge, denoting 
continuation of the action; and the names of sciences; as, bat Cffren, 
tlielife; bat Wnfefren, the respect, consideration; bat $0V&a6en, the in- 
tention ; bat 2)eftre6en, the endeavour ; bat $erm"0yen, the power, also 
property ; bat (§emurmcl, the murmuring; bat (Sebrange, the throng, 
the crowd; tylaXfytXXXaX'tf, mathematics ; Opttf , optics ; tylttaipfyt) fit, meta- 
physics, &c. 

065. 3. Many abstract nouns admit of a plural, to express different kinds of 
the idea denoted, or a recurrence of the same actions or feelings ; as, Xugenben, 
virtues; ^iinfre, arts; Steuben, joys ; @d)(age, blows ,• 93emufyungert, endeavours; 
■£offnungen, hopes, &c. Especially those become qualified for a plural, which 
extend their signification from the general idea to particular actions, rela- 
tions, or occurrences, characterized by that general idea; as, Xfyoxtjeiten, follies s 
Sreifyeiten, liberties; ©ro&fjeiten, impertinences, &c. In several instances, how- 
ever, if the abstract term is to be applied to particular events and actions 
characterized by that abstract idea, some noun is annexed for that purpose ; 
and compounds of this kind occur more frequently in the plural number ; as, 
SSorficfytSmngregeni, precautions; Ungfucfifcide, misfortunes; £obe$falle, deaths; 
ZieHtyixnbti, amours; ©nnffflgungen, thanks; So6fprucf)e, or So&eSetfye&imgen, 
praises; ©unft&ejeugungen, favours ; Grljrenfcejeitgungen, honours ; 9?ntfyfd)(age, 
councils, &c. ; of all which compounds, the simple substantives 2Bocfid)t, Uns 
gfiidr, &c, denoting only the pure abstract idea, are not found in the plural. 

Obs. 4. Several nouns admit of a plural only in some particular significa- 
tions, and not in others ; as, SUfangef, want, fault — 9ftange(, faults, defects, (not 
wants); @cf)u(b, guilt, or debt — @d)ufben, debts, Sec. With some others, each 
number has a signification of its own ; as, shtertfyum, antiquity— 2Iltertf)umer, 
antiquities, relics of old times; Sufr, pleasure, desire — Siifre, lusts; £rtnbef, trade, 
commerce — .£>anbe(, quarrel ; Sntereffe, concern or advantage — 5ntereffen, interest 
of money. The same occurs sometimes in English ; in which cases the plural 
must be rendered in German by a different word ; as, sand, ©nnb— sands, 
©mibpta^e; lead, 23fei— leads, SBleibadf); wit, SBifj— wits (senses), @inne, &c. 

3. Nouns denoting weight, measure, or quantity (tale) ; as, >Pflint>, 
pound; $ufj, foot, &c. — at least these do not admit of the inflection 
of the plural (see Obs. 6) ; as, ge&n ^Jflinb #leif#, ten pound of meat; 
jroan^ig £ll£ (or <5d)llt))bmX, twenty feet wide; bret ©cbritt, obev 3cU, 
lung, three paces, or inches, long; fecH &lafter ttef, six fathom deep; 

cier Djrijoft, ober $afj, 2Bem, four hogsheads, or casks, of wine; brer 
2>u$enb @ier, three dozen of eggs ; fec^)^ 3?iefl, ober 2)ti#, papier, six 



82 PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 43, 

reams, or quires, of paper. Except those terminating in e, as "Sietfe, mile, 
(&lte, ell, which have the regular plural in en ; as, bret 3)?etlen iang, three 
miles long; ftfnf Ungen ®0\b,fve ounces of gold. 

©tticf, piece, if referring to the individuals of a number, and SJtann, 
•man, relating to soldiers, remain also unchanged in the plural ; as, fe$9 

@tiicf 2?ie&, six head of cattle; etn Regiment vcn taufenb $?ann, a re- 

giment of one thousand men. ^j<Xt)V, year, and 5J?0nat, month, are found 
with and without their plural inflection : as, @r tjr fe#$ Sfafjr Unb bret 
5)?0nat, or fe#5 3a$tt Unb bret donate, alt, he is six years and three 
■months old. 

Obs. 5. When any of these substantives are used without any reference to 
weights or measures, they have the regular inflection of the plural ; as, ^icc 
finb jroet Sailer, here are two casks; Grt mncfyt furje @d)ritte, he takes short steps. 

Obs. 6. Although the above substantives do not admit of a plural inflection, 
yet the adjectives, definitives, and verbs, agreeing with them, are put in the 
plural number if we speak of more than one j as, 2)iefe jroei ^Sfunb Surfer Qtf 
f)5ren mix, these two pounds of sugar belong to me; Sftur jroanjig 9ftann entfamcn, 
only twenty men escaped. 

II. The following substantives are in German generally confined to 
the plural;— $el tern, parents; pattern, small-pox ; 25neffcfraften, 

letters, papers; ©ffecten, effects, chattels; (Sinfunfte, revenues; ^Orf* 

fc&rttte, progress ; ©erecfctfame, privileges; (Sefafle, taxes; ©e&riiber, 

brothers (collectively); ©liebttiaften, limbs; £>efett, dregs; $0fen, or 
25einfleiber, breeches ; ^Ojten, expenses (Stoft, board, is of course a dif- 
ferent word); Canbereien, lands; heme, people; SRolfen, whey; Oftern, 
JSaster ; ^ft'ncjftett, Whitsuntide; <S#ranfen, limits, lists; ©pefett, 
charges; XrUmmer, fragments ; Sruppen, troops, forces (but ber Xwpp, 
pi. bte Xruppe, troop, gang); 2Bei&na#ten, Christmas; Unf Often, costs. 
To this list may also be added substantives derived from foreign lan- 
guages, terminating in alien, or tlien ; as, 9?aturalten, natural curiosities ; 
^Obtlien, furniture; besides several others which are also in English 
confined to the plural; as, $anber*ten, pandects; (5,1'equien, exequies; 
$it\an%m, finances (see also § 42. Obs.). 



The English and German sometimes differ in the use of number, as 
may have been already perceived from some of the preceding examples. 
There are many nouns, chiefly abstract, which are confined to the sin* 
gular in one language, and in the other have both numbers. Thus, Qr- 
fafy\'Un$, experience ; @ef#aft, business ; $erleumbttnCj, slander ; S&\ti): 
ti^f eit, importance ; 3?iebertra#tiyf eit, baseness ; Un^erecjHtyf Cit, injus- 
tice ; and probably some others, have in German both numbers, and in 
English only the singular. But, on the other hand, there is a more 
considerable class of nouns confined to the singular in German, which 
in English are used in both numbers; as, @lenb, misery; Cohn, reward; 



§ 43.] . PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. 83 

Unred&t, wrong; $uxfyt, fear ; Untem$t, instruction; and several 
others, which may be left to the learner's observation. For most 
of such nouns, however, the language has others, nearly synonymous, 
which are not defective; in the same manner as the English substan- 
tives politeness, dread, foresight, are confined to the singular, whilst 
civility, fear, precaution, are used in the plural also. Thus the first 
noun in each of the following examples is confined to the singular, 
whilst the second admits both numbers, and may, in most cases, be 
substituted, if a plural be required: — 2>er$nu'yen and $ergnugung, 
pleasure; 2?etVUg and SSetrUyt'ret, deception; (fctrett and ©trettigfeit, 
dispute; £jattg and Stfeigtltty, inclination; <&tfalktt and ©efatttflfttf, ob- 
ligation; $erlangen and 25egierbe, desire; Summer and Qtib, sorrow; 
3RU(Je and 2WU(jfeligfett, trouble; 2?erbrufj and $erbvtej?li$fdt, vexation; 
3)?unb and 9)iaill, mouth, &c. From which examples it may also be ob- 
served, that abstract nouns with a feminine termination (§ 35) are more 
apt than others to admit a plural. 

Another class of words are in English confined to the plural number, 
which in German are generally rendered by the singular : — Instruments 
and other articles, consisting of two parts joined together, and to which 
in English the word pair is generally added, are used in German in the 
singular,* as, eitte ©cbetY, a pair of scissors; bev 29(fl£e6afg, the bellows; 
Me 3^9?- th e tongs; ettl %\x\t\, a pair of compasses ; @angel6anb, lead- 
ing-strings, &c. The plural of these substantives signifies several pairs; 
as, bie (ScfKtVtt, the (several pair of) scissors; txc'l ~j£x'\{l(\\, three pair 
of spectacles, &c. 

In the following words, too, the German singular answers to the En- 
glish plural :— ^rcftit), archives; $(fcbe, ashes; $uf$ebOt, banns; 2?iffiarb, 
billiards, also billiard-table ; (Srebitiw, credentials; 2)anf, thanks; ©algett, 
gallows; (SkfjiW, brains ; SjabeX, oats ; £)0pfeit, hops; ^n&alt, contents; 
StifyXVfyK, sweepings; Cogt^, lodgings; £of)tt, wages; CutlgC, lungs; 
2)ieeven$e, straits ; ba$ 5)cittelaltev, the middle a^es ; DRadbtajj, assets ; 
£maxtkx,quarters,and its compounds, ^auptquavtiei', head-quarters, &c; 
9?itCflranb, arrears; Umgegeitb, environs; Uniform, regimentals; s 2?er= 
lO&nif?, espousals; SCVmafjlUltg, nuptials ; $0rlabung, summons. 

Many of the preceding nouns have a plural in German, where the 
nature of their import admits it • as, bte 93iCetYHgen, straits, i. e. in se- 
veral parts of the globe • 25ittiarbe, billiard-tables ; CungCll, the lungs (of 
several animals). 

Obs. 7. With some nouns used in both numbers in either language, the 
idiom differs, with respect to number, in particular cases only. Thus hope, if 
directed only to one object, is used in the singular in German • hence, for 
instance, ' in hopes of seeing him,* must be rendered, in t>er. Coffining (not 
^Dffimngen) ifjn ju fef)cn. Verse, if referring to the composition, is also used 
in the plural j as, eine UeDctfefsung in SBerfen, a translation in verse. Thus, ofjne 



84 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 44. 

Umftan&e, without ceremony ; ju Styren Stenften, at your service; in Grngfifcfyert 
(SrnnjDfit'rfjen) SMenfren, in the English {French) service ,- 5Knd)en ©ie tyr mein 
Compliment, present her my compliments ; and some other instances of this kind, 
which may easily be learned by practice. 

Geographical proper names generally have the same number as in 
English; as, bie ^Jprenaett, the Pyrenees ; bie 2>arbanneflen, the Dar- 
danelles; bit' ^teberlailbe, the Netherlands ; bev 2)0$phoru5, the Bospho- 
rus, &c. Except DjftnMtR, the East Indies ; and ©effinbien, the West 
Indies, which are in German of the singular number. 



§ 44. CASE or DECLENSION. 

With respect to the oblique cases (genitive, dative, and 
accusative) of both numbers, the following four rules are to 
be observed : — 

Singular. 

I. The feminine substantives are indeclinable; that is, 
the oblique cases are like the nominative (see § 45). 

II. All masculines but those belonging to the next 
rule, and all neuters, have the accusative like the nomi- 
native ; in the genitive they add e£, and in the dative e. 
The C, however, both in the genitive and dative, may be 
dropped in most words, if euphony admits of it, parti- 
cularly in words terminating with a servile syllable; and 
must be dropped in all those nouns which admit no e of in- 
flection in the plural — that is, which end in e, el, en, er, or 
(etn: — see exception 1, § 40; also § 46, Obs. 1. 

III. The following masculines add, in all the oblique 
cases, en (or n, if ending in e) : — 

a.) All those of more than one syllable, denominating a 
person # , and of which the last syllable either has the prin- 
cipal accent f, or ends in e; as, ber ©olbat, the soldier; 

* It is indifferent from what the denomination may arise, whether from oc- 
cupation, office, dignity, nation, religion, or any relation whatever. 

f With the exception of ®t\t\{, fellow, journeyman, and ©eno0, an associate, 
this is the case only with foreign words (see § 20) ; which the student unac- 
quainted with foreign languages may know from their existing also in En- 
glish, without the change of letters mentioned in § 26; though sometimes with 
a different termination ; as, 3lbept, adept; aibjunct, adjunct ; ilbjutant, adjutant; 
aibuocat, advocate; 2Igent, agent ; Sippjftit, apostate ; 2lppel(nnt, appellant; Streets 
tert, architect; 2Irtfnxr<it, aristocrat; Strreftnnt, arrester; 2IfrroIog, astrologer; 
>2Jfttencm, astronomer ; &c. 






44.] 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



85 



bet ©tubent, the student; ber ^na6e, the boy ; genitive, be$ 

©olbaten, be3 ©tubenten, be£ £na6en; dative, bem ©olbaten, 
&c. (see § 47.) 

Except those terminating with a single I, t), or r, which, 
unless they are the names of nations (§ 47, Obs. 3.), always 
follow the second rule ; as, ber (Beneralj the general; bet 
@apitan, //ze captain ,• bev Dffi^ter, Me officer ; ber 5lntiquar, 
Me antiquarian ; — genitive, be$ ©emt'al3, be£ @apitan$, be£ 
Dffi^ier^, be£ $ntiquar3 ;— dative, bem ©ewral, &c. How- 
ever, the nouns .gufar ; ©cbolar ; Veteran ; and @orfar, cw- 
sair, add en in the oblique cases, according to the above rule. 

b.) The following list: — 



^lerojfrtt, balloon. 
s 2Iffe, ape. 
$U)n, ancestor. 
$(metf)pir, amethyst. 

25 a r, fear. 

25a fi' (iff, basilisk. 
^rtfttant, brilliant. 

25utte, «. 

(S&rtf?, christian. 
(Sonfotiant, consonant. 
2)rad)f, dragon. 



•Jarre, bullock. 

%Mt, finch. 

$oltant,/o/io. 

$UVff, prince. 
Oecf, coxcomb. 

(Sraf, coww£. 
$ageff0lj, o/c? bachelor. 

$afe, A«r<?. 

£jerr, master. 



&m{a§or } . 1 7 . , hornet, coTOrf. 

r?„r*<? [inhabitant „•■ ,. 



Snfafc $ 

^lep^ant, elephant, 
finite, falcon. 



9lan,fool. 

fftew, nerve. 

$a ragrapf), paragraph, 
tylanet, planet. 
%Vit\%, prince. 
Dliabrant, quadrant. 

Duartant, #w«rto. 

Quotient, quotient. 
3^a6e, raven. 
Nappe, black horse. 
@#enf , publican. 
ZbCY,fool. 
Srappe, bustard. 



Co we, /iora. 
^enfd), m«». 

^OJjt, moor, negro. 
Obs. The preceding list contains the few masculines in e which do 
not denominate persons; except $afe, cheese, and the nouns mentioned 
§ 46, Ota. 2, as ending indifferently in e or en. With the exception of 
these nouns, therefore, it may be given as a rule, that all masculines in 
e, of whatever import, add n in the oblique cases. 

Plural. 
IV. The oblique cases of all nouns of whatever gender 
are like the nominative; except the dative of such plurals 
as do not terminate in n ; which case invariably superadds 
n to the nominative ; — see the tables in §§ 45 & 46. 



The preceding rules, with those on the plural, are suf- 
ficient to decline all substantives : yet by way of exemplifi- 

l 



86 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 45. 

cation we will adopt three declensions, according to the three- 
foregoing rules for the singular, and add a few observations 
to each declension. It may be useful to repeat here, that 
compounded nouns follow the declension of the last com- 
ponent part (J 31); thus ber $ntd)t6aunt, the fruit tree, 
gen. be3 gutdbtBaum*, pi. tie gvucbtbaume, &c ; — bie fBanm- 
frudbt, the fruit of a tree, gen. ber 2>aumfmdjt, pi. tk Saturn 
fvitdbte. 

§ 45. THE FIRST DECLENSION 
comprehends all the feminine substantives, and no others. 

Singular. 





door 


fiower 


sister 


art 




N. 


bie Xfcur 


251 u me 


©dweffer 


Sanfl 


the 


G. 


ber X&iir 


25lttme 


©cbwej?er~ 


Jhmjt 


of the 


D. 


bet* Xfcur 


2?lume 


(Sdwefter 


5Tun.fr 


to the 


A. 


bie X&iir 


25lume 


©ditrefter 

Plural. 


flunit 


the 


N. 


bie X(juren 


35lumen 


©cfnrejtern 


£Unjre 


the 


G. 


'ber Xfjiiren 


25lumen 


(Srjnrefrem 


£unjte 


of the 


D. 


bm S&iiven 


2? lumen 


©djwefJern 


£unften 


to the 


A. 


bie Xfmren 


2?lumen 


©cfweftem 


£iinjte 


the 





Like jStume and ©cftwefrer are declined, all the feminines of the first 
exception, § 40; like $Utlfr those of h) and c) in the second exception; 
all the other feminines likeX&iir, except Gutter and Xottyter, the plural 
of which runs thus •. bk flitter, ber flitter, ben 3)?uttern, bk flitter; 
bie Xcc&ter, ber X'ocrjter, &c. 

Decline the following substantives for practice: bk $b'niQinn, the 
queen; bk %Vbt\t, the work; bk $i\$ IX t\, the fishery ; bk 2lrmee, the 
army ; bk X&COVie, the theory; bk 2lbev, the vein; bk SDurjel, the root; 
bk s J?id}te, the niece; bk ©rcf mutter, the grandmother ; bk ©tfwiefler* 
tocfjter, the daughter-in-law ; bk 2Bilbnif , the wilderness ; bk 9(rm&rufr, 
the crossbow; bk £)dfelnu£, the hazel nut. 

Obs. 1. A great number of feminines had in Old German the inflec- 
tion en in the oblique cases of the singular: which may be still traced 
in 6ome expressions ; as, auf (5rben, on earth; J u ©# an ben, to shame; 
mit $reuben, with joy ; t>On ©eitetl, on the side or part. $rau is often 
found with the inflection en in the genitive, if it is followed by the 

noun which governs it ; as, ($ gepo'rt tyrer ftrauen ©tfwefter (or ber 

©Cf)«?e{ter ^brer -JraU), it belongs to your wife's sister. 



§46.] 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



87 



Obs. 2. Before Wegett and fjalfrer (two prepositions which govern the 
genitive), feminine nouns, if not preceded by an article, take sometimes 
£5 as a genitive inflection ; for instance, &ranf6tft£ fralfcer, on account of 
illness; @intgfrft$ Wegett, for unity's sake. The feminine nouns ©ett, 
side, and 9tfa#t, night, occur also on other occasions witji this inflec- 
tion in the genitive ; as, $vat\$fif(i)ev ©Ctt^, <w Me part of the French ; 
9?a#t£ (or even DeS 9?a#t$) retfen, to travel by night. In the above 
instances the $ must be considered as anomalous — this letter not being 
used as a feminine inflection : it is, however, not uncommon with fe- 
minines forming the first part of a compound, where it serves as a kind 
of juncture analogous to a genitive; as, $vetf)eit5fa()ne, banner of free- 
dom; Wtfymin^fUfym, keeper of accounts ; ^Offnung^Os, hopeless. 



§ 46. THE SECOND DECLENSION 

contains all the masculines not belonging to the following 
declension, and all the neuters ; the latter not being distin- 
guished from the former by their own inflections, but merely 
by those of the article or other definitives. 



Masculines. 



the son 

N. ber @o(m 



angel 



Singular. 
sword 



day 

Sag @nge( §egen 

G. be» @of)ne$ Sage$ @ngcl5 2>eaen$ 

D. bem ©cfwe Sage (Sngel 2)egen 

A. ben ©o&n Sag (Snger 2)egen 

Plural. 

N. bte @b&ne Sage Gngel 2)egen 

G. ber @b&ne Sage @nge( 2>egen 

D. ben©bfmen Sagen (Sngeln 2)egen 



ray 

©tra&l 

©trafrle 
©tra&l 



o/Me l| § ^ 
the J -W 



©tra&Ien Me -\ ^"g 
©tra&len q/"Me I •§*! ^ 
©trafrten fo Me ( if 5 § 

-^ 2 tan 



A. 


bte ©b&ne 


Sage (fngel 'Degen 

Neuters. 
Singular. 


©tra&len 


Me -J 




Me horse 


picture window 


village 




N. 


ba$ spferb 


©emafbe $eniter 


Sorf 


the 


G. 


be$ $ferbe$ 


(Semalbe» #enjler$ 


Sorfe* 


of the 


D. 


bem $ferbe 


(§ematbe $enfrcv 


Sorfe 


to the 


A, 


ba$ tjjferb 


(Semalbe #enjter 
i 2 


2>orf 


the 




88 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 46. 









Plural 




N. 


bk $ferbe 


©emaibe 


Jenifer 


Sdrfer 


G. 


ber $ferbe 


©emalbe 


Verifier 


3>b'rfer 


D. 


ben QJferben 


©emafben 


^enfrern 


£orfern 


A. 


bk %fetk 


©emalbe 


#cnfter 


2)brfer 



tt* -N Si 1 

o/M* ll| 
to the f *? S 

Me J || 



Like Segett are declined all nouns of the first exception § 40, ending 
in en or lein ; the others of that exception like @ngel, $enfrer, or ®e-- 
malbe. Like Strati, the nouns of b.) and e.) in the third exception 
§ 40. Like 2>orf. all those which add er in the plural (see the third ex- 
ception § 40). All the other nouns of this declension are declined like 
@0&n, XtfCJ, or $ferb ; namely, those which inflect the vowel in the plural 
(§41) like (Scftn, and the rest like %a§ and $ferb. 

Decline the following for practice: — bet 2Dolf, the wolf; ber $lttfj, 
the river; ber Sfuftrag, Me orc?<?;-/ ber 25aum, Me free; ber ^eiertag, 

the holiday; ba$ %at)t, the year; bit R'6m$, flte king ; bit %t\fev, the 

anchor; ba$ Ufer, Me shore; bev .9?iitfen, Me &ac&; ber 2?ruber, the 

brother; ber 2?0gef, ^ flird; ba» 9u?fcf)Uf>n, the partridge; ba$ ^Wt- 
banb, the bracelet; ber v£in&anb, Me binding; ba$ $U(J)lein 3 Me /i#/e 
book; ber director, Me director. 

Obs. 1. It has already been observed, that the e of inflection in the 
gen. and dat. sing, is, in many words, optional ; thus we might also say, 
be$ ©ofjn?, &em@o&n; be? ©trabls, bem (§>tra|>l, instead of be$@o&ne$, 
&c. It cannot, however, be omitted in the gen. if the nominative sing, 
ends with a hissing consonant (4 f?, J, or fc&); as, ®la$, $Ufj, ^reug, 
25l!fe& — gen. ®lafe$, $ll£e», &c. It is, generally, also retained both in 
the genitive and dative, in monosyllables ending in 6, b, y, or d) ; as, 

2aub, Slab, Sag, 2>uch— gen. be$ £aube$, be$ 3?abe*, &c— dat. bem 
£aube, bem diabe, &c. 

065.2. The masculines $rteben,/>eace; $unfen,*p«r£; $tl£f?apfen, 

footstep; ©ebanUn, thought ; (Slauben, belief ; $aufen,heap; 9?amen, 

name; ©amen, seed; t&cfyabett, damage; Stiffen, will, are most fre- 
quently used without the final n in the nominative singular — ^riebe, 
-Junfe, #uf?ftapfe, ©ebanfe, &c— but only in that case; in all the 
others they invariably retain it, and are declined like ^egen ; as, bc$ 
£unfen$, bem ^unfen, ben ^unfen; pi. bk $unfen, &c. S>er 25udjf?ab, 
Me letter, though it has never a final n in the nom. sing,, is declined in 

the same manner ; gen. be$ 2>u#itaben$, bem 29ucbjtaben, ben 2>uc&* 
ftaben; pi. bie 2>ucbf?aben, &c. 
Thenouns^c&merjen.TJam; ^aumw, thumb; #e(fen,roe£; ©cfrretfen, 

fright; 25runnen, well, which are declined like 2)egen, occur also without 
the final en, in which case however they are differently declined; namely, 



§ 47 v ] DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 89 

inters, Saum, and #el$, like @traf)l ; ©d&recf, like Sa$ ; and $vunn, 

and sometimes also $el$, follow the third declension. 2)a$ $CtJ, Me 
keart t is quite irregular : gen.beS JKrjenS, dat. bem ^evgett, ace. ba$ $tt%; 

pi. bie Bergen, ber Ajerjen, &c. 

Ofo. 3. The masculines Oft, east; 2Bc|r, west; Stfot'b, worM; @Ub, 
soaM, are by some grammarians declined after this, by others after the 
following declension : ber Ofr, be* Ofr**, bem Of?, &c, or be3 Ollen, 
bem Ofren, &c. After prepositions they have always the ending en : 
von i)?orben, from the north ; gen ©Uben, towards the south ; au$ SBefren, 
from the west. If used metaphorically, for the winds coming from those 
quarters, they always follow this declension; as, bte UebltclJen -Befre, 
the pleasing ivest winds. But these four nouns are likewise used with 
the final en in the nom. sing., and are then declined like 2>e#en j as, ber 

3?orben, ber Often, &c„ gen. be$ 9?orben$, be$ Often $\ &c 

§ 47. THE THIRD DECLENSION 
consists of all the nouns belonging to the third rule, § 44 ; 
which, it will be remembered, are all masculines, and for 
the most part denominate persons. 

Singular. 
N. bet* £nafce, the hoy. btX ©Clbat, the soldier. 

G. &e$ £na6en, of the boy. be$ ©olbaten, of the soldier. 

D. bem £naben, to the boy. bem ©olbaten, to the soldier. 

A. ben ftnaben, the boy. ben (Solbaten, ^e «ofe, 

Plural. 

N. bk £nafcen, the boys. bk ©Olbaten, the soldiers. 

G. ber ftnaben, of the boys. ber@olbaten, of the soldiers. 
D. ben £naben, *o tf*e boys. ben ©olbaten, fo the soldiers. 
A. bte $naben, ^e 607/s. bte ©olbaten, the soldiers. 

Like ^nabe are declined all the nouns ending in e, all the others like 
©Olbat. — Several nouns ending in e are adjectives used as substantives, 
and have the adjective declension ; for which see § 52. 

Decline the following for practice: bet* 3)0tf)e, the messenger ; $faffe, 
priest; ©efafjrte, companion; £irte (or $trt), herdsman; (SfjUrfuv!?, 
elector; tyltwi $X a f, margrave ; Qfl$b'dX, polar bear ; £)Ofnarr, court fool. 
For more examples see the list b, page 85. 

Obs. 1. £)evr, master t drops often the e of inflection, more especially 
in the singular : be£ $errn, bem $errn, or be£ £erren, &c, pi. bk $erren. 
— Poets often omit en in the accusative singular of nouns of this de- 
clension, and say ben $Urfr, the prince; ben $elb, the hero, &c. instead 
of ben $Urfren, &c. 5J?onb, moon, if used, poetically, for month, follows 
also this declension. 

I 3 



90 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 48. 

Obs. 2. The nouns bailor, peasant; ^Diamanf, diamond; Dtfadfjbav, 
neighbour; better, cousin; Untertfjan, subject; $0rfa()r, predecessor; 
ZrCpf, simpleton ; tyfalm, psafai ; -#fatl, peacock ; and ®p3g, sparrow, 
are ranked in this declension by some grammarians ; but they are as 
often declined after the second ; namely, the three last regularly like 
gjerg, and all the others like (gtrafrt — see § 40, Exc. III. c. 

Obs. 3. All names of nations and tribes not ending in er, as %attax $ 

3anitf#ar, Janissary; Cannibal ; O^man ; Hottentot ; ^aur, moor, &c, 

belong to this declension. But those ending in er, as (Snylattber, En- 
glishman; (Spaniel*, Spaniard, are declined like @no,el of the preceding 
declension. Except )Som, Bavarian ; $0ttimer, Pommeranian; Unaar, 
Hungarian, which are declined by some after this, but more generally 
like ©tTflfrl of the second declension,- adding, however, n (not en) in 
the plural. 25itfcl)mann, Bushman, and dlctmann, are declined like 

9J?ann ; as, 25ufimann, gen. 29ufcbmanne», &c, pi. 29ufc|>manner, &c. 

93?Ufelmann is also declined in this manner. 



Note. — Some substantives are found only in connection with certain 
words, and may therefore be considered as defective in case, not being 
used in all the cases of the declension; as, fid? in $Icfrt nef)ttien, to take 
care ; in (Sails imb 2>raii$ le&en, to live- in riot and revelry / ttlit ^Ufl, 
with right; Ofjlte (fntyelb, without remuneration; pftne $al)d), without 
disguise; O&ne 3lrg, without deceit; (Statt tfnben, to take place. (See 
also § 40, Obs. 3.) 

§ 48. The four rules of § 44 apply also to substantives derived from 
foreign languages, which must be arranged accordingly under the three 
declensions; namely, all feminines follow the first; all neuters, the 
second ; all masculines, either the second or third, according to rule. 

We must however notice the nouns from the classic languages ending 
in u£ and a ; these remain unvaried in the singular, and are declined 

only by the article ; as, ber ©entity be$ ©enius, bem @enius, ben ©e^ 

niu?; ba$ (Stima, be6 (Stima, &c. Those in um, too, remain sometimes 
unvaried, but more generally receive $ in the genitive; as, ^a5 CPubIt= 
cum, bei publicum, or $ub(icum$, km publicum, ba$ publicum. The 
plural of these nouns, as has already been observed (§ 42), may, with 
very few exceptions, be formed by changing the termination u$, a, UtYl, 
into en. This is more especially the case in the genitive and dative, 
where that ending is preferable to the foreign inflections ; which are, 
however, sometimes adopted. 

Those from the French, which add $ in the plural (§ 42), retain that 
inflection through all the plural cases, even in the dative ; as, ber $fcteilr, 

the actor; pi. bie 9(cteur$, t>er ^cteurr, fcen 2lcteur£, bie 9Jctem*$. 



§ 49.] DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 91 

Masculines and neuters taken from other modern languages, ending 
in a, t, or 0, may remain uninflected throughout, or take an # in the 
gen. sing, and in all the cases of the plural ; as, ber 9(ga, bet (Sabt, ba$ 
3toaato; gen. be$ %&a, &abi, ^Ibagio — or bs$ W^at, (Sabi'S, ^bayio's ,- 
dat, bem $oa &c.; plur. nom. bk %$a (also ^gen), @abi, $bagto — or 
^ga'^, &abi% 9(bagio'», gen. bet ^a, &c. 

§ 49. PROPER NAMES. 

In the declension of proper names, usage varies con- 
siderably. Most grammarians, however, agree in the fol- 
lowing rules: — 

Geographical proper names are declined like common 
nouns ; that is, those of the feminine gender (§ 39) are un- 
varied throughout all the cases ; and those of the two other 
genders take g in the genitive, and remain uninflected in 
the dative and accusative; as, bk Ufet be$ 9tydn3 imb bit 
©6e 9 the banks of the Rhine and the Elbe ; Berlins ($'\W 
WO^meV, the inhabitants of Berlin ; bk ©rangett $tar\M$)$ 9 

the borders of France ; Wlaria fc.qdte von Sranfveidb nac& 

©C^Ottlcinb, Mary sailed from France to Scotland. 

Except names ending in §, g, or r, which remain uninflected even in 
the genitive; as, be$ $elOponne$, of the Peloponnesus ; be$ £>tpV, of the 
Styx. 2)?r %a\% the Harz mountains, makes, however, be» JpaVje^. 
With names of towns having the above final letters, the preposition 
roil is used, or an appellative is added to the proper name, in order to 
mark the relation of the genitive; since they are without an article 
(Obs. 4.) by which that case could be ascertained; as, bk ©tnrcofwer 
DOn $ari$ (^aitlg, (SabiV, &c), the inhabitants of Paris {Mentz, Cadiz)-, 
or ber ©tabt $ari$, &a, of the city of Paris, &c. 

Obs. 1. The final \a of geographical names derived from the Latin is 
apt in German to change into ten; as, ^Hrcabien, Arcadia ; Qalmatkn, 
JDalmatia; Jjjeloetien, Helvetia, &c. In some names, however, both 
terminations ia and ien are current through all the cases; as, %{ia or 
2(fien, ^leranbrta or 2Ueranbrien, ^ntiocbta or tatocfcien ; gen. $fia'$ 
or 2(ften$, 9(leranbria'£ or $leranbrien$; dat. and ace. $fia or 3ffien, 
&c. &c. : though in the oblique cases en seems to be preferred to a. 
But, if not preceded by i, the final a of foreign names is retained in all 
the cases ; as, Africa, (Sartfni^a, (Samba, &c. gen. Africa's, dat. and 
ace. Africa, &c. However, ©uropa, Europe, and Zvc'ia, Troy, make in 

the gen. (Suropen^, Xrojen^, or @itropa'*, Xvcja'$, dat. and ace. ©uvopen, 
Srojen, or, more commonly, (Suropa, %W)a. 



92 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 49- 

Proper names of persons may be declined in two 
ways : First, by the article merely — that is, the name itself 
remaining unvaried, and the article preceding it in the ob- 
lique cases, for the purpose of marking them ; as, 

N. $einri#, Henry. £utfe, Louisa. 

G. be? ^etnrtcl), of Henry. §CX Quife, of Louisa. 

D. bem £etrm#, to Henry. ber £utfe, to Louisa. 

A. ben £)etnridJ, Henry. bie Cutfe, Louisa. 

Secondly, by inflection ; the genitive of both sexes re- 
ceiving £ or en£, and the dative and accusative remaining 
like the nominative, or, in many names, receiving eit ; as 
•will be seen from the subjoined tables. 

N. £einric&. Cuife. ©olon. 

G. jpeimW. £uifen$. @elon*. 

D. $einrt$en. Ctttfen. ©olon.. 

A. 0eiriric6en. Suifen. ©olon. 

Like $eqtK$, most proper names are declined : Cubwig, £ant, ©Olf, 
^lijabetf), &c. This declension is the basis, of which the others are 
.mere modifications. The e in the inflection en is dropped if the final 
letter be I or v, not immediately preceded by an accented vowel : thus 
©cfrleget, Cutler, gajar, (Sari, make in the dat. and ace. <S#leyeln, 
'Student, &c. 

Like Cutfe are declined, 1.) all female names ending in e; as,9ftttafte, 
©opfjte, Sec; 2.) all male names ending with a hissing consonant; as, 
<&#ut$, s #o£, £eifcni£, ^orag, 9)?ar, ^ufcfr; gen. (ScbuljenS, &c. Male 
names in e and female names in a are declined, either after this man- 
lier— as, <§'ot£e, 'Diana ; gen. ©b'tften$,2>ianen» ,• dat. and ace ©b'tfcen, 
2)ianen— or like @C(on, making gen. @b'tpe'», Siana'$ ; dat. and ace. 
©otfce, 2>iana. 

Like ©olon are declined all names with a final vowel which do not 
fall under the preceding rule, and those ending in n or m, of which the 
last syllable is unaccented; as, Sajfo, %aceb\, $annp, 3ut1C, gotta, 
yibxafyam, ©efim, §tl&V$tto, $Utten. Those ending in vowels should, 
according to some grammarians, receive 'n in the dative and accusative 
— Hfacobi'n, $annp'n. In the genitive they generally have an apostrophe 
— Xa|To J 5, $annp'». Some authors put an apostrophe before the in- 
flections of all names— £ant'5, (Safar'r, (Safar'n, &c. 

Obs. 2. The inflection en, except in female names in e, is falling 
much into disuse, even with the most correct authors ; particularly in 
foreign names, and such as are not quite familiar ; in many of which 
that inflection would strike the hearer as very unusual. It may, there- 
fore, be most advisable for the learner to leave the dative and the accu- 






§ 49.] DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 93 

sative of male names uninflected; as, 3$ UU ©chiller, I read Schiller; 
Bennett @ie )Bc$, do you know Voss; or, in cases where ambiguity is 
to be prevented, to use the article; as, 3$ Jte&e $omer bem 2?ir$tl uor, 
I prefer Homer to Virgil. 

Obs. 3. In addition to the above rules it may be remarked : — 1.) If a 
proper name of a person is preceded by others in apposition, the last 
only is inflected, as in English ; as, ^tfWltn #einri# $0tfet15 Uefcerfegung, 
J, H. Voss's translation ; Cutfe 25ra#mantt5 ©fbtcbte, Louisa Brachmatfs 
poems ; $riebri$ DOn * £>#itfer$ 2Bet*f e, Frederick von (de) Schiller's 
works. 2.) If an appellative without an article precedes a proper name* 
the former remains likewise unvaried, the latter alone receiving the 
genitive inflection; as, ^b'ni^ Cubwt^ 5Kacfjt, the power of king Louis; 

doctor Martin £ut&ev$ ©c&riften, Dr. Martin Luther's writings. $etr 3 

Mr., however, is inflected; as, Jjjemt @#nttber$ Oarten, Mr. Schneider's 
garden. 3.) If an appellative with an article, or with another definitive, 
precedes a proper name, the former alone is inflected; but when it 
follows it, both are inflected; as, bie 9J?a$t be£ £imig$ Cltbwig, the 
power of king Louis; ein #reunb meineS 29ruber£ ijeinridj, « yw<?«d of 

my brother Henry ; ber Xob CllbttrtC^, £dnigc^ DOn $XCinfm$, the death 
of Louis, king of France ; eittSftuber £letjH, be? 3M#ter$, a brother of 
Kleist the poet. 4.) When preceded by an adjective or an adjective 
pronoun, female names are not inflected, but those of men require 3 in 
the genitive.; as, bie 29riefe meiner guten $enriette,//*<? letters of my good 

Henrietta; ein ©OfW be£ fcerUfjmten ^Bo\f^,asonofthe celebrated Wolf; 

ba$ Ungliicf biefeS {Hibwi^, the misfortune of this Louis; bev Character 

jetteS ^avly, £fo character of that Charles. 

Obs. 4. Concerning the use of the article with proper names we re- 
mark, 1.) With names of persons the article may be used, as stated 
above, to mark the oblique cases; but if this is done by inflections of 
the noun, the article must be omitted. It is never used in the nomina- 
tive, unless in speaking very familiarly, or contemptuously, of a person. 
But if a proper name is used as an appellative to denote a quality, it 
must be attended by an article, even in the nominative, the name re- 
maining uninfected ; as, ber 3)emoit()ene5 unferet* ^eit, the Demosthenes 
of our age; t§ evfobert bie2Bei$&ett eine5 (Salome, it requires the wisdom 
of a Solomon : 2.) Geographical proper names of the mas. or fern, gender 
are always attended by the article (for examples see the beginning of 
this section) ; but neuters, on the contrary, with very few exceptions, 

* In the above example, Don is a mere predicate of nobility ; but if the word 
after oon is a country or place, the name before uon should be inflected instead 
of that after it; as, bie Xtyaten ^riebcicf)^ uon ^reu^en, the deeds of Frederick of 
Prussia; bie ©ebufyte SKMfrnmS t>on @fd}en&rtd)> the poems of Wolfram of Eschen- 
bach. 



94) DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. [§ 49. 

do not admit of it, unless preceded by an adjective : For, 3.) any proper 
name, whether of person or place, which is preceded by an adjective, 
must be attended by an article, or another definitive; as, 6er Uiljter: 
bfi#e QbaHpeaw, the immortal Shakspeare; bk axmt -S^avk, poor 
Mary; b<X$ alte cKom, ancient Rome. Except in addressing a person ; 
as 3 Iteber JpetnrtC^, dear Henry. 

Plural. Proper names form their plural — which number, it may be 
observed, is used in the same manner as in English — nearly like appel- 
latives ; namely, the names of males add e, but without vowel inflection ; 
and those of females add en, or tt if terminating in a vowel ; as bie 

j?ante, 2Mfe, ^ermanne (not ^b'lfe,£krmannev), £kinrid)e; bie <5lifa= 

betfjen, Cllifen, &c. the Kants, Wolfs, &c. Male names ending in a vowel, 
or in ef, en, er, and all diminutives (§ 32), even of female names, have the 
plural like the singular; as, bie ^acobi, bie beiben ©d&legel, bk Cutfjer, 

bie Cie^C^en, &c the Jacobis, the two Schlegels, &c. The plural in j> 
which is sometimes met with —bit (5cf)fegel6i, bie (Savvtcf » — is rejected by 
grammarians as foreign to the German language. The oblique cases of 
the plural are formed like those of the appellatives (rule 4, § 44) ; as, 

nom. bie Jfanre, @cb1ege(, fiuifen; gen. ber £ante, (Spiegel, £uifen; 
dat. ben tfanten, ©cfjlegefn, Buifen ; ace bie $ante, Spiegel, QuiUn. 

Geographical proper names used only in the plural number, generally 
end in en in German ,• as, bie $prenaen, the Pyrenees; bie 2>arbane(Ien, 
the Dardanelles ; except bie (Sorbilleratf, and perhaps a few others. 



Latin and Greek names ending in § preceded by a vowel, and German 
names in tt£, remain uninflected, and can be declined only by the ar- 
ticle; as, bk ©efd?i#tt be$ Xacitul, the history of Tacitus ; bie Wdfc 

cfcten be* 2Kiifau$, the tales of Musceus; bie 2Det£fmt be$ ©cerate^, the 
wisdom of Socrates, &c. Sometimes even the article is omitted: $iet' 
if? 2>aCCf)U$ ©abe, here is the gift of Bacchus. 

The plural of such names remains likewise uninflected; as, bie betben 
$0mpej[U6, the twoPompeys; bie tyfyibiat, the Phidiases. The regular 
plural in e occurs also sometimes, in which case the final 3 is doubled ; 
as, spiinitlffe, 2n 4 UtufTe, $erculej]e, &c. Some historical names in iug 
occurring often in the plural, change this termination into tet* ; as, bk 
£oratiev unb (Suriatier, the Horatii and Curiatii; bie $abier, the Fabii. 
But all names which do not end in u£, e$, cJ6, &c, or which have 
dropped these endings in German*, as @afar, $latO, Virgil, Corner, are 

* In classic names, the English and German generally agree with regard 
to the retaining or dropping the foreign termination: Dutb, ©aUuft, ^3inbnt, 
SBiattifii, Sttoetint, «f)Dra5 (Horace), Zertni (Terence), SMogeneS, £tpl)eug, SperfiuS, 
&c. In some, however, they differ: StotuS, Livy ; Splimug, Pliny; sjfterfur, 
Mercury; 3|ntontu6, Anthony; IpDmpejuS, Pompey ; Sltiftotete^, Aristotle; 
Xdemncfy, Tdemachus ; and probably in a few others. 



§ 50.] THE ADJECTIVE. 95 

declined like German names ; except that those in make the plural in 
one : bie (Sicerene, (Satcne. Otto likewise makes Dttone.— A few scrip- 
ture names occur often with the Latin declension ; as, @f)rij?U$, @£mtf i, 
(Sfmito, dfivijlum ; SWaria, Wiavi'd, &c : bie ©eburt Gfmfri, the birth of 

Christ ; bie ©mpfangntf? 2)?arta, the conception of Mary. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

§ 50. The adjective is used in two different ways;— 

First, as expressive of the mere name of a quality, or 
property, without implying any connection with substance 
— that connection, if it takes place, being distinctly denoted 
by a verb, either expressed or understood; as, 'This is 
called red/ fi To be satisfied is to be rich/ 'This man is 
rich/ 'These people, though (they are) rich, are not happy.' 

Secondly, as implying, in addition to the preceding im- 
port, an immediate connection with a substantive ; as, ' The 
rich man/ 6 A green tree/ ' Happy children? 

We shall, after some grammarians, call the former the 
abstract adjective, since it imports quality in abstract 
only, and unconnected with substance ; and the latter, the 
concrete adjective, being conceived only as pertaining 
to substance. 

Obs. 1. These two kinds of adjectives may be distinguished by the 
places they occupy in the sentence; the latter, in general, precedes its 
substantive immediately; or, if it comes after, it is attended by the de- 
finite article ; as, f great men,' ' Charles the Great.' The former, in the 
usual order, always stands after its verb (expressed or implied), and Is 
never attended by an article, as in the examples at the beginning of this 
section. 

The German language very aptly distinguishes these two 
moods of the adjective, if we may so call them, by a differ- 
ence of form. The abstract adjective, being in itself inde- 
pendent of any substance, is never declined, and the word 
as found in the dictionary (which is its grammatical root) 
is, when the predicate of a substantive, used for all genders 
and numbers ; as, ber 2D?arm tjl f def), the man is rich ; bit 
$ratt iff nid), the woman is rich; bie £eute jmfc tttcfc, the 



96 THE ADJECTIVE. [§ 50. 

people are rich. But the concrete adjective, being used to 
define and limit the substantive by distinguishing it from 
others of the same species, and thus becoming a mere ser- 
vile of the substantive, agrees with it in gender, case, and 
number, and consequently must be declined. Compare 
page 54, and the following section. 

Obs. 2. The grammatical root of the adjective is in German used 
also as an adverb, without undergoing any change, and the same form 
serves therefore for the abstract adjective and for the adverb ; as, (?r 
lit retfi? Utlb reicfr gef'leibet, he is rich and richly dressed. In the degrees 
of comparison, the abstract abjective and the adverb are also exactly 
alike in form *. (See the Adverb.) 

Obs. 3. There are several adjectives which are not used in both ways, 
and may therefore be termed defective. The following are used merely as 
abstracts, and some of them only with the verb fterbftt, to become, and 
not with the verb fepn, to be:— $6t)Plb, unfavourable, unkind ; abfpdn= 
)rt>}, alienate; abwenbig, averse; angjt, uneasy; atlfldbttg, in sight; fres 
rett, ready; etngfbcnf, mindful, bearing in mind; fetnb, hostile; CjetrO|r, 
confident; QtVOafyv, aware ; geifartij}, expecting; gram, displeased, bear- 
ing a grudge; frabfjaft, in possession of; fjanbgemein, in close fight ; 
ftlttb, public, manifest ; Uib, sorry ; nOU), needful; nUfje, useful ; quttt, 
quit; t&eilfraft, participating; unp a f?, unwell ; cevlUiriy, forfeited, lost. 

On the other hand, there are several which are used only as concretes, 



* This circumstance has led Adelung, in his German Grammar, to class 
the abstract adjective with the adverb of quality, admitting the word in its 
concrete form alone as an adjective ; — a doctrine which has been opposed by 
most German grammarians. We may however remark, that if conjunction 
with substance be characteristic of the adjective (an opinion held also by some 
English grammarians), the abstract mode must undoubtedly be excluded. 
Further, the difference between the concrete and abstract adjective, consisting 
in the import of these words themselves, is more palpable than that between 
the latter and the adverb of quality, which consists merely in the difference 
of those words of which they form an attribute. Therefore, as in the German 
language the abstract adjective differs in form from the concrete, but not from 
the adverb, Adelung's arrangement appears, so far, not improper. But, with 
more justice it may be objected, that the relation of the abstract adjective to 
the concrete is analogous to that which exists between the infinitive and the 
indicative mood of a verb, or to that of the nominative of the substantive 
to its genitive — the infinitive and nominative expressing the mere name of the 
action or substance, the latter two adding the idea of conjunction with a noun. 
Now, most grammarians, and Adelung himself, consider the infinitive a part 
of the verb, and the nominative and genitive both as substantives; conse- 
quently, as conjunction with substance in these parts of speech is regarded as 
mere accident, it seems inconsistent to make it essential in adjectives. 



§ 51.] DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVJES. 97 

namely, I.) Adjectives ending in i$, denoting relation of time or place ; 
as, f)kfi$, of this place ; bortig, of that place ; nacfr&t?ri#, subsequent ; |en= 
fetti^, on the other side; ilUli#, inward; tJOrmalty, former; balbtCJ, speedy ; 
jegig, present These are, for the most part, derivatives of adverbs 
(thus, $m,here; bort, there; na#fjer, afterwards ,&c. are the primitives 
of the above adjectives) ; and there is no corresponding adjective in 
English for most of them. 2.) Adjectives ending in if#, derived from 
proper names of places, and signifying the being of, or coming from, a 
place ,- as, £olnifc&e$ s 3Ba|fer, Cologne water; bie $ranf fuvtifc&e Settung, 
the Frankfort newspaper. 3.) Those in en or ertt, denoting the substance 
of which a thing consists or is made; as, fetben, silken; Meiew, leaden, 
&c. 4.) The participles in enb preceded by ju ,• as, bai JU UbevfcGenbe 
©ebid^t, the poem to be translated. 5.) The ordinal numbers ; as, b(V Cl'fre, 
the first; bZX gvueitc, the second, &c. ; which, being a kind of superlatives, 
cannot be used in abstract (compare § 54, Obs.). 6.) The defective de- 
grees of comparison mentioned § 55 ; as, bet" \t\nCX( } the inner; ber CbtXC, 
the upper, &c. 

§ 51. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Concerning the declension of the concrete adjectives (§ 50), 
the following rules must be observed : — 

1. If the adjective is preceded by a definitive which de- 
notes by its inflection the case, gender, and number, of the 
substantive, it receives the following inflections ; which, not 
marking the cases distinctly, we shall call the indefinite 
declension : 

Singular. Plural, 

masc. fem. neut. all genders. 



N. 


e 


e 


e 


en 


G. 


en 


en 


en 


en 


D. 


en 


en 


en 


en 


A. 


en 


e 


e 


en 






But if the case, gender, and number, of the substantive are 
not denoted by a preceding definitive; it is the office of the 
adjective to do so ; and accordingly, 

2. If unpreceded by any definitive, it receives the com- 
plete declension of the definitives; which we shall therefore 
call the definitive declension (see § 29) ; and 

3. If preceded by one of the eight words with the de- 

k 



98 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. [§ 51. 

fective declension (page 57), it supplies the three defec- 
tive cases, by taking cr in the nom, masc, e$ in the nom. 
and ace. neut. gender ; and in the other cases, which are 
already denoted by the preceding definitive, it follows the 
indefinite declension. This manner of inflecting the adjec- 
tive, partaking, in three cases, of the definitive declension, 
and, in-the others, of the indefinite, we shall call the mixed 
declension. 

It may be added that the grammatical root of the adjec- 
tive to which the above inflections are to be annexed, is the 
word found in the dictionary. (See however Obs. 4. of this 
section.) 

As an exemplification of the above rules, we will take the 
adjective $ut, good, which as a concrete is declined thus : 

Indefinite Declension. 







Singular. 




Plural. 






masc. 


fern. 


neut. 


all genders 




N. 


ber gute 


bte gute 


ba$ gute 


bk guten 


the good. 


G. 


be$ guten 


ber guten 


be* guten 


ber guten 


of the good. 


D. 


bem guten 


ber guten 


bem guten 


ben guten 


to the good. 


A. 


ben guten 


bie gute 


ba$ gute 


bie guten 


the good. 



Thus the adjectives are declined when preceded, as in the table, by 
ber, bie, ba§, the (§ SO), or by any of the definitives with the complete 
declension, viz. biefer, this; jener, that, he. (see § 29);— as, nom. ber 
(iener, jeber, welcfcer, &c.) gute 9ftann, the (that, every, which, he.) good 

man ; bk (jene, iebe,tt>elcie, &a) gute $Vau;the (that, every, which, &c.) 
good woman; b(X$ (jene*, jebe», tt>elcf)e$, &c.) gute £inb, the (that, every, 

which, &c.) good child ;— gen. be£ QeneS,- kbe§, roelcM, he.) guten 

3Jtdnne5, of the (of that, of every, of which, &c.) good man ; bCY (jener, 

&c.) guten $rau, of the (of that, &c.) good woman ; be* (he.) guten 
S'mbH, of the (&c.) good child; — dat. bem (jenem, &c.) guten Marine, 
to the (to that, &c.) good man : — Plur. bk (jene, alle, &c.) guten banner, 

$vaiien, 5ltnber, the (those, all, he.) good men, women, children, he. 

The adjective has this declension also if ber, bk, b<X§, preceding it, is 
compounded, or contracted, with other words; as, berjenige, that; ber= 
fel&e, the same (§ 64); Vtm (POtt bem), of the; in'5 (in ba$), into the 
(§ 30, Obs. 3). 

Obs. 1. According to most grammarians, the adjectives take the above 
indefinite declension likewise after einiger, some, and after the plurals 



§ 51.] DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 99 

mefyv ex C, several; etltC&e, some; and beibe, both. Also after Diet, much, 
and tWttig, little, if these are inflected ; but if they are uninflected (§ 66), 
the adjective has the following definitive declension ; as, mit wentget 

guten £offnung, or mit wenig guter £offnung, with little good hope. 

It must however be observed, that after all these words, except fretbe, 
the nom. and ace. plural of the adjective occur very often with e, in- 
stead of On : and not unfrequently the n of these cases is omitted also 
after manclK, many, and alle, all; as, eitttge alte 2)Udjer, a few old 

booh; tnele neue #aufer, many new houses; alle gute 5)tenfc^en, all 

good men, &c. (see Obs. 8.) 







Definitive Declension. 








Singular. 


Plural. 


masc. 




fem. neut. 


all genders. 


N. guter 




gute gute$ 


gute 


G. gute$,or 


guten* 


guter guteS, or guten* 


guter 


D. gutem 




guter gutem 


guten 


A. guten 




gute guteS 


gute. 



The adjective takes this declension if unpreceded by any definitive ; 
as, nom. guter 2Dein, good wine; gute 3)itlcb, good milk; gute3 2)ier, 

good beer ; — gen. gute» or guten -BeineS (or 2)tere£), of good wine (or 
beer); guter 3Ji!tlcb, of good milk;— dat. gutem 2Beine (2>iere), to good 
wine [beer); guter 9Jiild), to good milk, &c. — Plur. nom. gute banner, 

^rauen, or £inber, good men, women, or children ; — gen. guter banner, 

&c, of good men, &c." 

Thus also, if the adjective is preceded by uninflected numerals (§§ 56 
and 57), or by the indeclinable words, genug, enough; eitt wenig, a little; 
ZlWa*,some; nicbtS, nothing; lauter, nothing but; as, fed}:? neue Sucbet', 
six new books; etn $ater Cter febblier Xbcbter, a father of four fine 
daughters; atlertet aU5>lanbtfd)e ^DiOben, all sorts of foreign fashions ; 

etwaS frtf#e$ 2Baffer mit e'm roenig rotfjem 2Deine, some fresh water 

with a little red wine; lauter fettled papier, nothing but fine paper, &c. 

Obs. 2. Adjectives ending in m, as, Iflhm, lame; angeneijm, agree- 
able, should, according to some grammarians, change the dative inflec- 
tion em into en, in order to avoid the repetition of m ; as, mit la&meit 

(for la&mem) #uj?e, w ' lth a lame foot; pen angenehmen (Serucfte, of an 

agreeable smell. But this is not often attended to by authors. 

* The inflection e$ is more according to analogy than en, which is a modern 
innovation ; yet the latter is used more commonly, in order, as it is said, to 
avoid the disagreeable recurrence of e$— the substantive having also that ter- 
mination in the genitive of these genders. If two or more adjectives precede 
the same substantive, en is undoubtedly preferable ; as, guten nlten SiBeineS, of 
«ood old wine— not guteS n(te$. 

K 2 



100 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



[$■51. 



masc. 
N. mem guter 
G. meine* guten 
D. meinem guten 
A. meinen guten 



Mixed Declension. 
Singular. 

fern, 
meine gute 
meiner guten 
meiner guten 
meine gute 



neut. 
mein guteS 
meine$ guten 
meinem guten 
mein guteg 



Plural, 
all genders, 
meine guten 
meiner guten 
meinen guten 
meine guten. 



As already observed, p. 97, the adjective takes these inflections after any 
one of the eight words with the defective declension ; as, nom. mein (fein, 

unfer, ein, &c.) guter 2>ruber, my {his, our, a, he.) good brother; meine 
(feine, unfere, eine, &c.) gute ©clnvefrer, my (Ms, our, a, &c.) good sister; 
mein (fein, unfer, ein) gute$ ^inb, my (he.) good child;— gen. meineS 
(unfere$, &c) guten SSrubertf, of my (our, &c.) good brother; meiner 
(unferer, &c.) guten ©tfwefrer, of my (our, he.) good sister ; meine* (&c) 
guten £inbe£, of my (he.) good child;— dat. meinem guten 2>ruber, to my 
good brother, &c— Plur. nom. meine (feine, unfere, &c.) guten SBriiber, 

©CfriKjreW, ^inber, my (his, our, he.) good brothers, sisters, children, he. 

Obs. 3. The adjective has this declension also after the personal pro- 
nouns of the first and second person of both numbers ; namely, after 
icfr, /; ttfir, we; bu, thou; it)Y,you: also after 6ie and @r, if signifying 
you (see § 59, Obs. 2); as, nom. bu guter tylatM, thou good man ; b\S 
gilte $rflU, thou good woman; bu guteS itttlb, thou good child;— (the 
genitive is unusual in this construction j) — dat. bir guten 5)?cwne, to thee 
good man ; bir guten $rau, to thee good woman ; bit guten &inbe, to thee 

good child ;— accus. bi# yUten 9ftann, thee good man; bid) gute $rau> 
thee good woman ; bid) gute$ $inb, thee good child; — Plur. tfrr gUtett 
banner, ^ratien, ^inber,^ow good men, tuomen, children, &c. 

Obs. 4. In the declension of some adjectives a syncope takes place : — 
l .) &od[), high, drops the e throughout the whole declension (see note f 
page 14); as, ber jjO&e, be$ fjo&en, &c. 2.) Adjectives ending in en may, 
when inflected, drop the e of that syllable ; as, eben, even; eigen, own — 

ber ebne, be£ ebnen; ein eigner, eigne, &c— instead of ber ebene, ein eige^ 

ner, he. S.) Those ending in el or er may drop the e of those termina- 
tions before any inflection but that of en j as, ebel, noble; bunfef, dark; 

bitter, bitter; mager, meagre— ber eble, ein ebler, ein bittrer, magrer, 
&c. — instead of ber ebele, ein bitterer, &c. But in those cases which 
require the inflection en — namely, nearly the whole of the indefinite 
declension, and the accusative masculine, and dative plural, of the defi- 
nitive declension — the e of the inflection, but not that of er or ef, may 

be dropped; as, ben ebem, be* bittern, bie bunfeln, magern, &c— instead 
of ben ebelen, be* bitteren, &c. 4.) Adjectives ending in e drop this letter 
through the whole declension j as, mil be, tired; weife, wise—bev mube* 



§ 51.] DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 101 

be$ muben, &c ein wetfer, erne© weifen; wdfe fieute, wise people; 
wife* Zeute, &c. 

O&y. 5. All participles used as concretes must be considered as adjec- 
tives, and declined in the same manner. For instance, the participles 
ViXi^Xt, honoured; ^er&rodKn, broken; la (fytnb, laughing, are inflected 

thus: frer perebrte 2?ater, *A* honoured father ; be$ r>ere&rten Waters, 
bem cercfjrten 2?ater, &c. ,• jerfcrocfrene (Siafer, broken glasses ; gerbros 
#ener ©later, of oro£<?rc glasses, &c. ; ein lac&enbeS £tnb, a laughing 
child; eine$ tacfcenben tfinbe*, &c. 

Ofo. 6. Poets often omit the inflection e£ of the nominative and ac- 
cusative of the neuter gender ; as, ein blinb (for 6linbe$) ©effticf, a 
blind fate; @uer fceilig (for fcetttgetf) D^ecfrt, your sacred right. This 
poetical licence excepted, the inflection of the adjective must not be 
omitted j particularly before other concrete adjectives, as it might then 
be mistaken for an adverb (see Obs. 2, § 50). Thus the expression biefe? 
DOWeffUcb Ufcerfegte ©ebtcfrt, signifies this excellently translated poem; 
but biefeS flOWeffltcfre, Uberfegte ©ebtcrjt, signifies this excellent, trans, 
latedpoem; etn ganj neue$ $au$, an entirely new house; — ein ganged, 
netted ^au^, a whole, new house. 

It may however be remarked here, that adjectives in er, derived from 
proper names of places, never admit of any inflection; as, ein $ariftr 
burger, a Parisian citizen ; etne$ JJartfer 2)Urgev$, of a Parisian citizen. 
Several grammarians, indeed, consider such derivatives altogether as 
substantives. 

Most derivatives of numbers, and some other words denoting quan- 
tity, are likewise undeclined : see § 57, especially Obs. 3 of that section 
respecting gang, fjalfc, lattter, and VOW, and § 66, Obs. 4 and 5. 

Obs. 7. In German, the definitive is sometimes separated from its 
noun by an intervening noun to which it does not refer : sometimes, 
again, the definitive refers to the next, and not to the subsequent, 
noun. In all such cases it must be remembered, that the adjective 
is influenced by that definitive only which refers to the same substan- 
tive as itself; as, mit etnev t>on wafyxex 93ienfc^enlie6e buvefrbrum 

gerten ©eele, with a soul animated by true philanthropy (literally, with 
a by true philanthropy animated soid). Here the definitive ein refers to 
<3eele, and not to 3)?enfdjeMiefre, which is without a definitive; and 
consequently, burc&brungetl, being preceded (though not immediately) 
by a definitive referring to its own substantive, has the indefinite inflec- 
tion, and voafyx, having no definitive, has the definite declension. Thus 

also, buvdb biefe guten 25eifpicle befe&rte £inber, children instructed by 
these good examples ;— and biefe, bur# gute 25etfpicte,6ele&vten£inber, 
these children instructed by good examples. Hence if a genitive precedes 

K 3 



102 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. [§ 5h 

the noun by which it is governed, the adjective of the latter has the 
definitive declension, being unpreceded by a definitive belonging to its 
substantive; as, meine^ retcftett 9lad)bat$ eingiger ©Ofm,w*/ rich neigh- 
bour's only son ; freffen fcb'one^ $au$ unb grower ©arten, his (or whose) 

fine house and large garden; mtt beffcn fcfroner Xocbtev, with his (or 
whose) beautiful daughter ; mit berett ret#em @0f)lie, with her (or their, 
whose) rich son: though one must say, mtt fetner fcfronen Xcc^ter, with 
his beautiful daughter; mtt t&rem rCtC^en 6ofjtie, with her rich son— the 
possessives being, at the same time, definitives of the subsequent noun 
(see § 63, and § 66, Obs. S). 

Two or more adjectives preceding the same substantive 
are declined alike, — each receiving the inflection which 
belongs to adjectives according to the preceding rules ; as, 
fitter, alter, twrtrefflicber 3)?ann, good, old, excellent man; 
fcnefer ^ute, alte, vovtrcfflidbe Wlatm, this good, old, excellent 
man ; em ^voge^, aber mcjrt 6equeme3 $ai\§, a large, but not 
convenient house ; meitter #uten, alten Gutter, to my good, 
old mother ; ttietue liefcen, jltngen gremibe, my dear, young 
friends. 

However, in those instances where the rule requires the 
definitive declension, usage is not uniform with respect to 
the second and following adjectives, which, in the genitive 
and dative of both numbers, occur often with en, instead of 
cm and ev ; as, nut $utem, alten, rotl;en 2£eine, mib frifcber, 
Fatten 3)?ilcfc, with good, old, red wine, and fresh, cold milk ; 
,a,uter, alten -Bjetw tt?e#en, for the sake of good, old wines. 
But this deviation — which had its origin, perhaps, merely 
in the rapidity of colloquial language, to which the repe- 
tition of et 4 and em is an impediment — is but partial ; and, 
very frequently, the general rule of declining all adjectives 
alike is observed even in these cases; as, mtt glttem, altem, 

rot&em S&tw, tmb frifdber, Falter SJtilcb ; flutcr alter 2Feine 

weqen, &c. 

Obs. 8. Adclung and some other grammarians give it as a rule, that 
the second and following adjectives should take the mixed declension, 
if the first has the definitive ; allowing, however, that very frequently 
they occur with the definitive declension, especially in the nominative 
and accusative of the plural. 



$ 52»] ADJECTIVES USED AS SUBSTANTIVES. 103 

Many of the most recent publications endeavour to introduce a new 
doctrine with regard to the adjective preceded by another limiting 
word, whether adjective or definitive. If it is, they say, subordinate to 
the definitive, or adjective, preceding it, it takes the indefinite, and if 
co-ordinate with it, the definitive declension. Thus, for instance, DiclC 
QUtett Ceute, many good people ; mit neuer rotten Sinte, with new red 
inky infer, as they assert, many of the good people, red ink which is new : 
so that the first limiting words refer to substantives already limited by 
the adjectives preceding them ; or, in other words, 'good people,' and 
* red ink,' form the species to which ' many ' and * new ' refer. But if 
we wish to imply many and (at the same time) good people, ink which is 
both new and red — so that the first limiting words are to refer to the 
unqualified substantive — we must, according to their rule, say, piele, 
9Ute Ceute ; mit neuer, rot&er 2>inte. This distinction is as little war- 
ranted by usage as supported by analogy : for it would apply to most, 
if not all definitives ; even to those after which, according . to these 
grammarians themselves, the adjective has invariably the indefinite de- 
clension. Thus then we ought to say, biefer, rotljer 2Dein, if signifying 
this wine, which is red — in opposition to another wine which is white ; 

nur rcegen einer, occjletcfr unaerecfner Xfjat, only for one act, though an 

unjust one — these adjectives being co-ordinate with their definitives ; 
and yet the inflection er would undoubtedly be a solecism. 

§ 52. ADJECTIVES USED AS SUBSTANTIVES. 

If a concrete adjective can be referred neither to a pre- 
ceding nor to a following noun, it has the character of a sub- 
stantive; as, " The poor and the rich, the high and the loxv, 
all must die ;" " A treatise on the sublime and beautiful." 
In German all three genders of the concrete adjective are 
frequently used as such substantives, but with a diiferent 
import; viz. — 

The masculine and feminine denote persons, — the mascu- 
line, either a male, or one of the species without reference 
to sex (see § 33, rule 5), the feminine, only a female ; as, 
ein timber, a blind man ; em $lbeli.ger, a noble ; eiii 2Mber, 
a savage /—cine 2?luibe, a blind woman : eim ^Ibeli^C a noble 
lady ; etne 2Mbe, a female savage ; cine @c(jbne, a fair one. 

The neuter gender indicates anything whatever, or several 
things or parts collectively, or merely a thing or part, pos- 
sessing the quality in view ; as, bd$ ©d;one, the beautiful 



104 ADJECTIVES USED AS SUBSTANTIVES. [§52. 

(all that is beautiful) ; ba$ Gr^aBCHC. the sublimes bd$ @ter8: 
lid)t ait IU1$ ? the mortal part (or parts) in us, that which is 
mortal in us ,- ©ute£ wit 99bfem v evgellen, to r^tf?/ good wz7# 
evils ettt?a$ Stfette^, something new ; Ctn ©anjC^j « wholes 
b(X§ D&erC, ^£ upper part s bb§ 3nnetCj ^£ interior, &c. 

Ofo. 1. This neuter noun is generally considered as denoting quality in 
abstract ; but from the preceding it will be seen, that this is not strictly 
correct; for some generic substantive, as 'thing,' 'matter,' 'object,' 
seems to be understood. It is true, the substantive understood, being 
used often in so vague and general a sense as not to exclude any object 
of thought, becomes unnoticed, and leaves the attention chiefly fixed 
on the quality ; and thus the adjective becomes apparently an abstract 
noun. In fact, however, it denotes a species of things characterised by 
that quality, just as its corresponding masculine denotes a species of 
persons of that character; the former standing to the latter in the same 
relation as the pronoun '■ whatever' to the pronoun ' whoever.' Thus 

in the expression, $affe ba$ 23b'fe, aber bebauere ben S'ofen, Hate evil 

(the bad thing), but pity the evil doer (the bad man), the masculine im- 
ports every, or any, bad man, the neuter every, or any, bad thing. 

These neuter nouns are, therefore, distinct from substantives derived 
from adjectives by a servile syllable (e, frett, fett, &c), which are real 
abstracts denoting the quality as divested from all substance; as, bci$ 
2Bt$ttge, the important part, or whatever is important — bk 2BiC&ti$feit, 
the importance ; bd5 XtCfC, the deep part, or whatever is deep — bk Xicft, 
the depth ; ba$ %B?i$e, the white, or whatever is white — bk £BCtf?e, the 
whiteness ; bcii ©dbbne, the beautiful — btC <§f.bbn&ett, or (poetically) bk 

<&c&bne, the beauty; bat @r&abene, the sublime— bk (Svfmbenfjeit, the 

sublimity. 

Several of these nouns are in English declined like sub- 
stantives ; as, ' the elder/ c the black,' * the savage,' S the 
evil,' &c. — plur. c the elders,' 'the blacks,' &c. In German, 
all concrete adjectives used as substantives retain the adjec- 
tive declension ; as, ber ©cf)W&V^e 5 the negro, the black, be3 

©cbroat^en, bem ©cbwa^en, ben ©dbwa^en; fem. bieScfwat^e, 
the ncgress, ber ©cfwargen, ber ©cfwa^en, tie ©cfwar^e; 
neut. ba§ ©dwar^e, the black (thing), be£ ©cbnw^en, bem 
©cfrnwv^en, ba$ ©cbwar^e ; plur. bk ©cfwarpi, the negroes, 
or negresses, bev ©tfwa^en, bin ©cbwav^en, bk ©cfwar^en. 
— See also the examples at the beginning of this section. 
. Obs. 2. The neuter is not used in the plural, the plurality being de- 



§ 52.] ADJFXTIVES USED AS SUBSTANTIVES. 105 

noted collectively by the singular— see the examples in the preceding 
page. The feminine, according to usage, takes en throughout the plural, 
even in those instances where the usual adjective would take the defini- 
tive declension ; as, JttJCt <&$onett (for ©cfci'one), two fair ones. We may 
also observe, that the oblique cases in e? are unusual with these nouns, 
and are best avoided. Thus it would sound rather strange to say, VUV 
&$WMZCttve%en, on account of four negroes; mit fetne5 jStuhtti ©eltefc 
ttt, with his brother's beloved. 

The nouns of this description may easily be known from 
their import to be adjectives used substantively; and they 
are, generally, rendered in English also by adjectives *. The 
following, however, though the corresponding words in 
English are never used as adjectives, belong to the same 
class, and must therefore be declined like adjectives : 

eilt %U$$ewat\beKtex,an emigrant. compounds UnglauH#er, an 

— 25camtCr,«« officer, a placeman. infidel. Sec.) 

— Scienter, a man-servant. eill Jpetliger, a saint. 

— 23efflnnter, an acquaintance. — 5Jieinetbiger, a perjurer. 

— 2>eocnma'(J[Hi9ter, a plenipo. — 5Jtttfd)Ufbiger, an accomplice, 
tentiary. — Dbcrfter, a colonel. 

— 2)eputirter, a deputy. — *Kejfenber, a traveller. 

— @lenfcer, a wretch. — ©ternfun&iger, an astronomer 

— #rember, a stranger. (and the other compounds 

— tSefailQetier, a prisoner. with futtbi$). 
'•»* ®etfllt#er, « clergyman. — $erfcannter, £ an exile {one 

— ©ele&mr, a scholar, a learned — 2JeiWiefener, ) exiled), 
man. — WetWanbttX, a relation. 

— ©eltefcter, a lover. — 2?erfC^ttJ0mer, a conspirator. 

— ©efanbter, an ambassador. — 2Deifer or 2Belttt?eifer, a sage, 

— ©laubigcrf, a believer (and its philosopher. 

as, ecu Sfcrwanbter, eine£ QSenvanbten, einem Q?em>anbten, &c. ; 

bit 3?Cttt?anbte, the relation ; plur. bic 2?ertt>anbten, the rela- 
tions ; 2?erW?anbte relations. Thus also the feminine gender : 



* The learner will, therefore, not confound such substantives as ber 3unge, 
the boy; bic $tembt, foreign countries or parts; bic <5&)'bni, the beauty ; tie SGetfje, 
the whiteness, &c. with their kindred adjectives used substantively, ber 3un<jf, 
the young one ; bic ^xembe, the female stranger ; bic ©d)ij>ne, the fair one, &c— 
the former have the declension of substantives, the latter that of adjectives. 

t ©Iriufciger, creditor, is declined like a substantive, gen. QHaubiQttS, plur. 
©IrttiMger, &c. 



106 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. [§ 53. 

bk SBeWMlfcte (not 2>cmanbtinn), the female relation; geni- 
tive, bcr 2?etmnbten, &c. 

Obs. 3. On the other hand, in English, most adjectives relating to 
nations, religions, and sects, are used substantively to denote persons of 
that nation, religion, &c. In German, the adjective is a distinct word 
from the substantive, and is, generally, derived from the latter by the 
annex tfdj; as, Ctfl $0UUytefe, a Portuguese; ein $(menfaner, fl»l»^- 
rican— fljomigteflfcfre unb 2(mertfamfciK ©C&tffe, Portuguese and Ameri- 
can ships; ein #rotei?ant, a protestant—b\t protejtantifcfte D^eligicn, the 

Protestant religion. ^Deutfcfr, German, is the only adjective of this nature 
which is used substantively to denote persons ; as, ein 2>eutfdKV, a Ger- 
man; eine 2)eutfrJ?e, a German woman; bie 2)eutfcfrett, the Germans, &c. 

However, the neuter gender of adjectives derived from proper names 
of nations, is used substantively ; but only with reference either to the 
territory, or to the language — which must be decided by the context. 
With states, or provinces, having no language of their own, it can refer 
to the territory only: as, im $veu§tfd)en 1Mb 25aiertf#ett, i ni he Prus- 
sian and Bavarian territories. Otherwise it is more generally used with 
reference to the language; as, tm ^wnjbflfd&en, in French; aut btm 
(5nyltfd)en tn32)eutf#e Ufcerf \%\,translated from the Englishinto German. 

The abstract form (§ 50) of these adjectives is also used substantively; 
but only with reference to language; as, £fcfo lewe (§ried(?ifcf), I learn 
Greek; Qat tjt gUte$ 3)eutfd(j, that is good German. 

Obs. 4. The abstract form or the root (§ 50) of adjectives signifying 
colours, stands often as a substantive denoting the name of the colour, 
or, also the colouring matter itself ; as, bat 2>latl btt #imnult,the blue 
of the sky ; bat 2(benbr0t&, the red of evening ; bat ^ellbltnfel, the clare- 
obscure ; bat 25crltnet 25lau, Prussian blue. All such nouns, as well as 
the few other neuters which are in form like the abstract adjective ; as, 
bat (*lwb,the misery; bat Uefcel, the evil; bat 9?e#t, the right,&c. are 
real substantives, and declined as such ; as, bte Cieblicfrfeit bet 9l6enb- 
rotf)? Unb bit $imnielMaiie$, the loveliness of the evening red and celes- 
tial blue; bie 2Burjer bet \Ubelt, the root of the evil. 

In a few instances, the abstract adjective is used substantively in re- 
ference to persons, and denotes people collectively of a certain descrip- 
tion; as, tylan fa& ba 9llt unb Sung, ©rof? unb £lein, cerfammeft, &c. 

old and young, great and small, were there seen assembled. In this collec- 
tive sense, as well as when denoting the name of a language (see Obs. 3), 
this noun is indeclinable. 

DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 
§ 53. The German adjectives, whether of one or more 
syllables, form the comparative and superlative by annexes; 



§53.] DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 107 

namely, the comparative by adding er, and the superlative 
by adding eft, to the uninflected positive or grammatical 
root. However, the e of both annexes must be dropped, 
if the positive ends in e ; and that of ejl is generally omitted 
also in many other adjectives (see Obs. 2). — Examples: 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative, 

letdrt, light. teicfcter, lighter. leidbteft, lightest. 

n?eife, wise. n?etfcr, wiser. ttJCiKjr, wisest. 

^raufam, cruel. #raufamer, more cruel, graufamj?, most cruel. 

Thus also with compounded adjectives: as, ebelffiit$iv}, 
noble-minded ; fiu^ji:d)tt#, short-sighted — comparative, ebel; 
mutter (not ebkvmiit|)i#), fur^fiicirttcjev — superlative, ebelmiU 
t&i$ft far^dbtisfr. 

Obs. 1. Adjectives terminating in el, CV, or en, often drop the e of 
these terminations in the comparative; as, ebel, noble; firmer, safe ; 
Cffen, open;— comparative, ebler, ficbrer, Offner. This omission is still 
more frequent, when the comparative is declined (§ 54) ; as, bet eblere 
(Seij?, the nobler mind; eitt flC^rerer 2Beg, a safer way, &c. 

Obs. 2. The ear alone must decide whether ft, or eft, is to be added in 
the superlative. Adjectives ending in a single liquid (§ 8), or in b, g, or #, 
generally add only ft; as, fiif) I, cool; %afym, tame; f#on, beautiful^ tapfer, 
brave; liefr, dear; ftreng (or ftrettge — see Obs. 3), severe ; ru&ttf, quiet; 

bmlid), excellent;— superlative, fii&lft, jatjmir, fc^b'nff, tapferft, ftren^ft, 
&c. On the other hand, those ending in a lingual {§ 7) mostly add 
C(t; as, wmfy, worth, worthy; mnb, round; fiif, sweet; raf#, rasA ; 
—superlative, weru)eft, ninbeft, fufj eft, rafc^eff. However, participles 
ending in enb, or et, take ft ; as, blu&enb, flourishing ; etngetnlbet, con- 
ceited ;— super], blu&enbft, etn3e6tlbetf?. With adjectives of other final 
letters, it is optional to add ft or eft; as, btcf, thick; toll, mad; reif, 
ripe; fxe'ufree, &c — superl. bttfeft or btifft, tctteft or tOllft, retfeft or 

reifft, freieft or freift*, &c. 

Some of those ending in f? form their superlative often by adding t, 
instead of eft; as, gvo£, great ; flif, sweet; — superl. grb'fjt, ftlft (or 
%X'6$ eft, fU^eft). Those in if#, according to some grammarians, also add 
t, instead of eft; as, 6arbarif#, barbarous; fomtfcfy, comic;— superl. 
barbartfefrt, fomifefyt. But with adjectives of this termination, it is per* 






* According to Adelung, adjectives ending in a diphthong should always 
take eft ; but this is not generally observed. 



108 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 



[§54. 



haps best to avoid the superlative altogether, on account of its harsh- 
ness ; or to form it by the adverb am meijten (§ 55, Obs. 3) j as, am 
metjlen barbartfcfr, most barbarous. 

Monosyllabic adjectives inflect the vowels a, 0, It, when 
compared, but not the diphthong an; as, jtarf, strong; rotl}, 
red ; f ur£, short ; ratify, rough — comparative, fMtf er, rbt&er, 
Fitter, raufyer— superlative, tfatf e|r, rbtbeft, fitr^jl, rattl;efr. 

Except the following monosyllables, which have their 
vowels unchanged when compared : 

baxfd), harsh, rough. Fnapp, close, strait 

blOtlb, fair. Mm, lame, 

bvav, good, worthy. lafi, weary. 

built, variegated. I Dp, loose. 

bttttVpf, dull (of sound), damp, matt, weak. 



fa tt, satiated. 
ftt)al,flat, insipid. 
fd) I a ff, slack, loose. 
fcfclanf, slender. 
fC^roff, rugged, steep. 

ffarr, stiff. 

ftcl%, proud. 
|?ra|f, strained, tight. 
tfumm, dumb. 
ffumpf, 6/wTtf, dull. 

tO If, TWtffi?. 
t>0[l,/tt//. 

roa&r, true. 

WUnb, wounded, sore. 

ga&m, tame. 



fa&{ and falb, fallow. morfd), decayed, 

falfd), fake. tutf t, naM. 

\\0^, joyful. platt, flat. 

ftdd),flat. plump, c/aroy. 

jjlatt, smooth. tar» rare. 

&arfd?, £ar$£. rafch, quick. 

&Cf>(, hollow. rC0, raw, rude. 

bOlfr, fowd, dear. rUllb, round, 

tabl, bald. fac&t, */ow. 

f i3rg, sparing, stingy. fan ft, *o#. 

and perhaps a few others, 

Obs. 3. 25ange, afraid; btafi, pale; flefunb, healthy; jart, tewdVr, 
occur both with, and without, the vowel inflection in their degrees of 
comparison. — CartCje, long, is compared like a monosyllable— lander, 
VdnfyfE ; as the final C of the German adjective does not belong to the 
root, and is, according to grammarians, merely added for euphony's 
sake. It is, therefore, mostly omitted in the superlative, if preceded by 
g or b; as, gerinije, small ; et\&?, narrow ; fjCfbe, rough, sour — superla- 
tive, gertnojt, engf?, &er&jf, 

§ 54. The comparative and superlative, when used in 
concrete (J 50), are declined exactly like the positive; 
taking, in addition to the annexes er and cf?, the inflections 
of one of the three declensions of adjectives, according to 
the rules given § 51. For instance, retdj, rich : frarf, strong; 
$tofj 9 great; alt, old ; \\\X\Qp young, would, as concrete com- 






§ 54%] DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 109 

paratives, or superlatives, make bet 4 reidbete 20? Ann, the richer 
man ; be3 md;ew (or veicfjeven — see § 51, Obs. 4.) 93tanne3, 
of the richer man; bk ttidbjien &Ute, the richest people; 
jlarfere$ $ier, stronger beer ; jtdrf em $$imv, of stronger 

beer ; awgere -jpufer, larger houses; ^rcgever .gaufev, o/" 

/arger houses; mem altejfer 2?tuber ? my <?/6to brother; 

meine3 alteften $mber$, ofmz/ eldest brother ; befl~eti iun#jle3 
£mb, wte* youngest child ; wit beffen jiimjfkm £mbe, «*■#£ 
w^ose youngest child, &c. — just as we decline bit retc|)e 
2)?atw, bes reidben Mamies, j?atfe3 2?ier, &c 

If the comparative is attributed to a substantive by means 
of a verb, it remains undeclined, like the abstract positive 
(§ 50); as, Siefer 2)? a mi ift vetcber, tmb feme ©cfm>ejler armer, 
al5 icb, M/s ?raara is richer, and his sister pooi~er, than I. But 
if the superlative is employed in this manner, it either takes 
en, and is preceded by the word am ; or it is preceded by 
bet, bie, ba§, and put in the nominative of the indefinite 
declension, — that is, it is made a concrete adjective referring 
to, and agreeing with, its subject ; as, <£et ^ufriebene $t enfdb 
ijt am reicbjlen — or bet reidbfte (supply 2)?enfcb), the contented 
man is the richest (man) ; ^m heifer fmb bk $Ukflic|j|tcn 
(Golfer)— or am ^UtcfUdbffen — wldbe ben @efe$en ge&ordbcn, 
those nations are the happiest (or happiest) which obey the 
laws. 

It must however be observed, that the two forms, with 
am, or bet, bk, b&$, are optional, only when a comparison 
between the quality of different subjects is implied, as in the 
preceding examples, where 'of all men,' ' of all nations,' is 
supplied by the mind. But if the comparison is between 
the degrees of a quality belonging to the same subject, but 
under different circumstances, or at different periods, and 
where in English the superlative is always without an article, 
the form with am alone can be used ; as, ^imx 9?ebner i\l 

immev am #rbfjten (not ber grbfjte), m\m er ft'cfc an bk £etben= 

fcftafteil Wenbet, that orator is always greatest when he ad- 
dresses the passions ; $luf bem Canbe 6in id) am glttcfUcbften 
(not ber £|litcflicf;jte), I am happiest in the country* 

L 



110 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. [§ 55 

Obs. The superlative with am is, properly speaking, the dative of the 
indefinite declension ; as am (i. e. an fcem) fc&OItffc fl, to (at or in) the 
finest; some substantive, perhaps, having been originally understood. It 
will therefore be remarked, that the superlative never occurs uninflected 
as an adjective. The only exception is the compound atterliefcjr, most 
charming, and that only in the sense of a superlative of eminence (see 
3. of Obs. 3. § 55); as, 2)a5 ift alkrltefrft, that is most charming, excellent. 
Indeed, even as an adverb the superlative is never used uninflected, ex- 
cept as a superlative of eminence (see the Adverb). 

§ 55, The following form their degrees of comparison 
irregularly : 

QUt, good; Beffer, better; 6e|r, best. 

jjodb, high; |)cl)er, higher ; tydfyft, highest. 

ml), near; ridtyiX, nearer; nad)(t, nearest. 

tttd, much, many; xnd)X, more; metff or nte&rf?, most. 

Obs. 1. ^Dte^rere signifies several, — thus differing from mefjf, more, 
which is the comparative of vkl. For the declension of V\Cl and mef)-- 
rere, see the Quantitative Pronouns (§ 66), to which these words properly 
belong. 

The following degrees of comparison have no positive, 
nearly all of them being derived from adverbs; and some 
of them are, moreover, irregularly formed : 

Comparative. Superlative. 

be? aujjere, the outer, exterior, ber augerfre. 

— itmere, the inner, interior, — imierfk. 

— ^tntCte, the hinder, — Ijmterjre. 

— V Orbete, the fore, anterior, — tJOV&etffC 

— mtttlere, the middle (one), — urittdire. 

— o6ere, the upper, superior, — O&erjte. 

— tttltere, the lower, inferior, — lintctflc 

— bftete*, the more frequent, — bftevfreorcfteffc 

— erftete, the former, — erjle, first. 

— latere, the latter, — lc$te, last. 

— minberc, the lesser, — minbcfle, the least. 

Obs. 2. For the positive of minber, ttn'tli$ is used, its own positive min 
having become obsolete. 

* The positive oft is used only as an adverb. 



§ 55.~\ DEGREES OF COMPARISON. Ill 

The positives of er(?eve and le$tere — namely ef)r and (at — having pro- 
bably become obsolete before the want of their comparatives was felt, 
the latter were formed, contrary to analogy, from the more familiar su- 
perlatives erjte and le£te. 

The contrary seems to have been the case with most of the other 
defectives of the above list ; the comparatives were first formed, — and, 
indeed, from adverbs and prepositions, — and from those again the super- 
latives ; but, probably, at a later period *. 

Obs. 3. Instead of the annexes er and ef?, the adverbs mef)?, more, and 
am ttiei|ten, most, are sometimes used, as in English, to form the degrees 
of comparison ; — namely, 

1. With the adjectives mentioned in § 50, Obs. 3, as being used in 
abstract only; as, gram, averse ; feinfc, hostile ; Uib, sorry ; — compara- 
tive, me&r gram, meftr feinb, me&r leib , — superlative, am meiffen 
gram, &c. 

2. If the degree of one quality is compared with that of another; as, 
2)a$ War me&r glucflitf) at5 Wt'ife, that was more fortunate than wise. 

3. With many participles, particularly such as imply something trans- 
itory or temporary, denoting either an action, or state, with reference to 
a particular point of time ; and which thus, even as concretes, retain to a 
certain degree the nature of their primitive, the verb; as, @ie Wat VCt\ alien 
am meijlen beleibigt, she was most offended of all; bet no# mefir jttternbe 

(or erfctjrOif ene) Jtnafce, the yet more trembling (or frightened) boy. The 
participles * offended' and ' trembling,' in these examples, refer to a par- 
ticular time known from the context. This partaking of the verb is 
especially felt, if they govern a case ; or when, with participles past, the 

* These comparatives having apparently the import of positives, led A de- 
lung to consider them as such also in form, and to take the ending er in these 
words as a mere syllable of derivation — and belonging therefore to the gram- 
matical root or positive — and not as a comparative annex. But as the com- 
parative is, from its relative nature, less definite, in the degree of intenseness 
which it expresses, than the positive, and is often applicable to substantives to 
which the latter could not be ascribed (as a man may be younger than an- 
other without being young), so it is sometimes employed to express a lower 
degree of the quality, and consequently implying a greater extent with regard 
to the substantive which it qualifies, than that which the positive would con- 
vey. Thus the expression " the lower classes " includes many men who could 
not, in an absolute sense, be called low. " The earlier part of his life " de- 
notes a lesser degree of earliness, and therefore incloses a larger portion of 
time, than " early." The above adjectives rti'igere, innere, &c. are comparatives 
of the same description, since they denote less marked limits than their primi- 
tives au£en, innen, &c. In the same manner iiftere signifies a less decided fre- 
quency than the positive oft, often. And erftere, latere, and mel)rere, being con- 
sidered as such indefinite comparatives, — if so we may call them, — there can be 
no inconsistency in the former two being derived from the superlatives erfte 
and leijtc, and the latter from the comparative meljt; since they are intended 
to denote a less definite idea than the words from which they are derived. 

L 2 



112 NUMERALS. [§56. 

agentTs particularly mentioned. Thus, though we could say 5te bvilcf enb= 
ffen ©orgen, the most oppressive cares; bie cerac^tctffen 9)?enfcr)en, the 
most despised men; we must say bie mid? am meiffen brinfenben ©orgen, 

the cares luhich most oppress me ; bk VOW bei* -Belt am meiften V?xadOU* 
ten 3Jtenfcften, the men most despised by the world. But if the participle 
is used in a sense in which it denotes something permanent or habitual, 
and may therefore serve as a characteristic of a substantive, it takes, like 
the usual adjectives, the terminations er and ejf when compared; as, 
ein rei^enbere* 3)?abcf)en, a more charming girl; bet blii&enbjfe ©taar, 

the most flourishing state; bk abgefcartettten 3J?enfd&fi1, the most hardened 
men,— from the participles rei^enb, frfti&enb, and abgefiartete. 

Obs. 4. With regard to the use of other adverbs in the comparison of 
adjectives, we observe : 

1. Diminution of quality is always formed by the adverbs minber or 

weniger, less, and am minbeffen or am roentgen, least,— just as in En- 
glish,- as, QaZ iff itOdb minber perjei&liCT;, that is still less pardonable ; 
25a$ iff am wenigjlen xal^am, that is least advisable. The expression 

ntd&tS roeniger a\$, imports anything but; as, <gv iff nicety weniger al$ 

gf fefjrt, he is anything but learned. 

2. An equal degree of two compared objects is denoted by fo or ebett 
fo, and aU or \vk; as, 3$ Hn fo(oreben fo)rei$ al$ (or trie) er, /am 

*w (or ^'^ as) rich as he. 

3. The superlative of eminence — that is, a higher degree than the 
common standard of the quality in view, without any comparison with 
that of other substantives — is always expressed in German by means of 
adverbs ; as, fine aitflerff fcbb'ne (not feb'dntte) $rail, a most beautiful 

woman; fefjr portreffficfc, most excellent; aufwrbentucfc (or fcb'cfett) 

rergniigt, uncommonly (or highly) pleased. Except, a) in addressing a 
person, when the terminal superlative is often employed as a superlative 
of eminence; as, t&euerfter 2?ater, dearest father ; wert&efter ^reunb, 

most worthy friend, b) The superlative aUerliebjI, most charming; as, 
ein aUerlicfcffe^ Jtinb, a most charming child. 

4. Adverbs are often added also to the terminal comparison, as in 
English, for the purpose of heightening the degree of superiority; as, 
riet (or roeit) fdfo'ner, much (or far) wxore beautiful; bei weitem ber 

fir/onffe, the finest by far. %\\<ix, of all, is often added to the superlative 
for the same purpose ; as, ba% allcrmirf IViirbigjr e ^afyx, the most remark- 
able year (of all). 

NUMERALS. 

§ 56. The following lists exhibit the Cardinal and Or- 
dinal numbers. It will be seen from them, 1.) that, with 



$ 5&] 



NUMERALS. 



■IIS 



the exception of er j?e, tritte, and acfrte, the latter are derived 
from the former merely by terminations ; — namely, up to 
nineteen, by annexing te; and from twenty upwards, by 



annexing fre. 2.) In compounded numbers the last alone 


receives the ordinal annex, 


as in English. 


Cardinals, 


Ordinals. 


1, ein$, or ein, cine, ein. 


is*,ber,bie,ba 


% erire. 


2, gvt>ei. 


2nd, 


jweite. 


3, brei. 


3rd, 


britte. 


4, t>ier. 


4th, 


tnerte. 


5, fiinf. 


5th, 


fiinf te. 


6, fec&» *. 


6th, 


fettle. 


7, fieben. 


1th, 


fiebente. 


8, a#t. 


Sth, 


a cine. 


9, neun. 


9th, 


neunte. 


io, jedn, or jefjen. 


10^, 


Sefjnte. 


H, elf or eilf. 


11M, 


etfte, 


12, gttJOlf. 


12th, 


jwo'lfte. 


13, brei^e&n. 


13th, 


breijefjnte. 


14, fierscon. 


14th, 


tnerjeljnte. 


1.5, ftfhfgcim, or funfjefjn. 


15th, 


fiinfge^nte. 


16, fecbge&n*. 


16th, 


fect)geC»nte. 


17, fiebenjehn, or fiefyefm. 


17^, 


ffe&enje&nte. 


.18, acbr 5 ebn. 


18th, 


acfnjehnte. 


19, neun^e&n. 


19th, 


neunje^nte. 


20, jwaiigig. 


20th, 


jwanjisfre. 


21, ein unb jwanjiy. 


2lst, 


ein unb gwanjiyjle. 


22, jwei unb grcanjig. 


22nd, 


\m\ mxb jwanjigire. 


23, brei unb jwanjicj. 


23rd, 


brei unb jwansigfte. 


24, pier unb jwanjig. 


24^, 


tJiev unb jwanjigffe. 


25, fiinf unb swanjig. 


25th, 


fiin f u nb 3 wan 3 iyite. 


26, fedb-S unb jwanjifl. 


26th, 


fecrjs unb jwanjigfte. 


27, fteben unb jwanjig. 


27^, 


fieben unb^wanjigfle. 


28, adn unb swanjig. 


28^, 


acfrt unb zwani\Q\te. 


29, neun unb gwangrg. 


29^, 


neun unb gwanjigite. 


so, breifiy- (not breijig). 


30//*, 


breifigfte. 


31, ein unb brei£ig. 


' 31^, 


ein unb breif igjfe. 


32, }wei unb breif?ig,&c. 


32nd, 


3wei unb breigigfte. 


40, -jiergiy. 


40^, 


rierjigjte. 



* It will be observed, that the final S of fecf)S being dropped in fecf)jef>n and 
itd))iq, the d) in these last two words is not pronounced like t, but resumes its 
usual sound. See p. 15. 

L3 



114 


NUMERALS. 


l§56. 


41, ein unb tuersio,. 


4i5^,ber,bie,ba» ein unb oiersiytfe. 


50, funfjy or funftig. 


50$, 


funfjiyfre. 


eo, fec^iy. 


60$, 


fec&gigffe. 


70, fiefcenjtg, or fte&jig. 


10th, 


frcbenjigtte. 


so, acinic}. 


80th, 


acl)r 5 igtre. 


90, netiftytg. 


90th, 


neunjigfre. 


ioo, fcunbert. 


100th, 


fcunbertfte. 


101, fcunbert unb tin. 


IQlst, 


fcunbert unb erjte. 


102, ounbert unb jroei, &c. 


102nd, 


bunbertanb jtreite. 


200, gtret frunbert. 


200th, 


Srcei Imnbertffe. 


300, brei frunbert. 


300th, 


- — ■ brei (mnbertfte. 


iooo, taufenb. 


1000th, 


taufenbfle. 


iooi, taufenb unb ein, &c. 


1001st, 


— - taufenb unb ertfe. 


10,000, sefm taufenb. 


10,000th, 


ge|>n taufenbite. 


100,000, frunbert taufenb. 


100,000$ 


, fmnbert taufenbfre. 


1,000,000, eine Million. 


i,oooflooth,~- mtlltonfre. 



Obs. 1. In the composition of numbers the same order is observed as 
in English, with the exception that the units always precede the tens; 
as, fei» taufenb brei fmnbert (unb) acbt unb gwanjig, 6328 ; $rcei W\U 
lionen, brei (mat) &un&ert(unb)fte6en unb neungtg taufenb, ein frunbett 
(unb) neun unb tuergig, 2,397,149; ber taufenb fiinf unb breifrajte, the 
1035th. The words in brackets may be omitted. Instead of ein taufenb 
jwei fwnbert, brei bunbert, &c. 1200, 1300, &c. we may say gwolf (nitu 
bert, breijebn bunbert, — as in English. 

Million, million; Million, billion, &c. are feminine substantives, and 
always take the regular inflection en in the plural : — see the second of 
the above examples. 

Respecting the declension of these numerals, the follow- 
ing rules must be observed : — 

1st. (£ii\$ is indeclinable, being always used without any 
reference to a substantive ; as in counting, ein£, $V?i, &c. ; 
Inmbcvt Unb Cine, 101 ; (F3 fdblagt em3, it is striking one. 
It is never used before tens ; as, ein (not i\\\$) Ullb £Wan£tg, 
21. 

The form ein, eine, ein, always refers to a substantive; and, 
if not preceded by a definitive, is declined like ttietn (§ 29); 
and consequently it must take the complete declension if a 
substantive be understood — see page 57 ; as, x\\XX cill ®ol}tt 
itnb Cine Xocfcter, only one son and one daughter,- (?r fcatte MiXX 
chien Xfyalcr 6et fid), he had but one dollar with him ,- — einer bte^ 
fev Rtia Ber, one (boy) of these boys. But if preceded by another 



§ 56.'] NUMERALS. 115 

definitive, it is declined like an adjective; — ber eim, fa$ einett, 
bem etwn, &c. ; mem etne$ ^Pfct^ owe <?/* my horses (lite- 
rally, my one horse) ; btcfc£* eme 3)iat, M/s owe*?. In oppo- 
sition to bte anbern, the others, it is even used in the plural 
(similar to the French les uns) ; as, Ste cmctl fasten biefe£, 
Utlb tie anbem jem», ^e one (literally ones) said this, and 
the other (others) that. When this numeral is preceded, but 
not followed by others, the above rules still obtain ; as, 
tCWfenb unb eme 9^ac{)t, A Thousand and One Nights ; eme 
Ue6erfe$tm3 bet taufenb unb emen9?adjt, a translation of the 
Thousand and One Nights (i. e. the Arabian Nights). But 
before tens, em is indeclinable ; as, em Unb $Wan$i<J Sage 
(or Sftadbte), 21 days (or nights). 

Obs. 2. The numeral eitt is one and the same word with the indefinite 
article, differing only in the pronunciation ; — the former having the verbal 
accent, from a contradistinction being implied, while the latter has not; 
as, etn' £jail£, one house— tin £JaU5\ a house. The same distinction is 
observed between einmaf denoting once, a single time, — where ein is the 
numeral, and therefore emphatic, — and einmal, once upon a time, — where 
dlt is the article, and therefore without accent. 

Some authors distinguish the numeral by a capital (@in); and yet, 
very inconsistently, make no difference between the demonstrative pro- 
noun ber, that (§ 64), and the definite article ber, the ; though the case 
is exactly similar, the article ber being merely the demonstrative without 
emphasis; so that accentuation is the only difference between them; as, 
ber' Sftann, that man;— bet Sftann', the man. 

2dly. gwet and brei, if unpreceded by a definitive, take 
the regular inflection et in the genitive ; as, bet (?r6e breter 
^omgreidbe, the heir of three kingdoms; fltiiit? Singe twgen, 
on account of two things. If followed by an adjective, either 
the latter, or the numeral, may take er ; as, ein 2?ater ^UJCicr 
fcbomtl— or %mi fdbonet — Xbdjtev, a father oftwofne daugh- 
ters. But when preceded by a definitive, the numeral is 
never inflected in the genitive ; as, ber (?r6e biefet brei Ro\\i$: 
reidbe, the heir of these three kingdoms ; ber 2?atet bcr £tt>ei 
febonen Xocfrter, the father of the two fine daughters. 

Obs. 3. 3wet na( l formerly a different termination for each gender; 
namely, jjweetl for the masculine, Jiro for the feminine, and Jir-et for the 



116 NUMERALS. [§ 56. 

neuter. But this distinction is now obsolete ; and, poetry excepted, 
where gtttfftt and jrco yet occur sometimes, gwei is now used for all 
genders. 

3dly. The other cardinals are not declined, except in the 
dative, where all cardinals from two upwards, take CH> if re- 
ferring to a substantive which is not expressed ; as, 2iM|)le 
au$ fimfen (or au$ fluff Stngeit) euie$, choose one out of 
five [things) ; Sa3 ift drier von ben ^wblfen, that is one of 
the twelve; ailf alien Vicren friedbcn, to creep on all fours ; 
tx> mtt bveten aufnefymen, to be a match for three. Qithtn 
however, according to most grammarians, remains unalter- 
ed in all cases. In colloquial language, the numbers from 
4? to 12 occur sometimes in the nominative and accusative 
with c, if not followed by the noun to which they refer ; as, 
(?3 ttwren unfer fecfrfe, there were six of us ; 3$ fat) it)rer 
fitttfe, I saw five of them. 

Obs. 4. $unbert and tatlfenb admit of the numeral ein,but not of the 
indefinite article ; and em DUnbert therefore always corresponds to the 
English one hundred, but not to a hundred, for which we say in German 

bunbevt merely; as, tm Sarjre ein nutfenb ein frunbert unb fecb$ unb 
gwait$i§, in the year 1126; ein frunberr (or (ninben) unb Dierjig ; 3Jfunb, 

one hundred (or a hundred) and forty pounds ; tailfenb (not ein taufenb) 
3Kal, a thousand times; DOr (junbert ^fa&ren, a hundred years ago. 

Jrjunbert and taufenb are also used as neuter substantives, to denote 
these numbers collectively, or rather as round numbers, — similar to the 
substantives Xugenb, dozen, and ©djOCf, a number of 60 ; as, 3Da$ foffet 
bas #unbert (or Saufenb) oon biefen 9?a'yeln ? what does the hundred 
(or the thousand) of these nails cost? The plural of these nouns answers 
generally to the English plurals hundreds and thousands ; as, ^unbevte, 
\<X Xattfenbe, Ijaben e5 $e5e£en, hundreds, nay thousands, have seen it. 

Obs. 5. All the cardinals may be used as feminine substantives, to 
denote figures, or the numbers on playing-cards; as, eine (?in5, a one. 
As such they take the regular inflection en in the plural ; as, gwet (5infen, 
two ones ; brei rb'inifcne ^Unfen, three Roman fives. Except fteben and 
jeljen, which, terminating in en, do not add another en in the plural. 

Obs. 6. A cardinal preceded by je, or the repetition of such a number 
with unb — whether preceded by je or not— denotes a general division of 
objects, according to the number mentioned; as, je brei, or je brei tmb brer, 
or merely brei unb brei, three and three, every three, three at a time; je 
Pier, or Pier Unb vkt,four and four, every four, &c. 



§ 57.] NUMERALS. 117 

The words an bte, on the, before a cardinal, signify nearly or about the 
number in question; as, an bte fUnfjlO,, about 50. @tnige, some, before 
any of the tens, denotes and odd; as, eint#e bretf^tg (better einige U\\b 
brcipty), thirty and odd. But einige fcunbert, taufenb, or SDiilltonen, sig- 
nifies some hundred, thousand, or millions; as, eintge £unbert(or taufenb) 
$fttnb, some hundred (or thousand) pounds. 

4thly. The ordinal numbers are declined exactly like 
adjectives; as, ber erJTe Wlami, the Jirst man; bd crfictt 
2t)?atim£, of the jirst man ; bte erfien £a#e, the first days ; fein 
^wetter ©o^n, fo's s^owd sow ,- ^e^nte^ (Sapitel, tenth chapter. 

Obs. 7. Der (bie, ba?) Wte Dtelffe, which is derived from rote tuel, how 
many,, by the ordinal annex f?e, and declined like an adjective, may be 
considered as an ordinal interrogative. It denotes which in the order of 
the number? so that an ordinal number is expected in answer; as, Den 

trie oieljren (Sag) be» 3)tonat» fjaben roir fceute? what day of the month 

have we to-day? 

Obs. 8. 2)dbe, both, and ber anbere, the other, are also considered as 
numerals j the former as a cardinal, and the latter as its ordinal. They 
are both declined like adjectives. 2?etbe is, generally, in the plural num- 
ber, agreeably to its nature; as, beibe, beiber, betben, betbe ; bte betben, 
ber betben, &c. However, in reference to two preceding propositions, 
it is usually put in the neuter singular; as, s lBtr mUfen fi'egen, Ober jfer« 
"belt; beibeS if? rU&ttlPCll, we must conquer or die ; both are glorious. 

Sometimes betbe is used for jwet, two; as, WdW eine$ con betben, 
choose one of the two; Die betben jiingtfen fi'nb nccb in ber @$ule, the 

two youngest are yet at school. It will be seen from these examples, that 
the article precedes beibe .* but other definitives, too, may precede it ; 
as, bkfi betben $aufer, both these houses ; meine betben 23ruber, both my 
brothers. As in English, it may also be separated from its noun by the 
verb ; as, 9J?eine 25rUber ttmren betbe bort, my brothers were both there. 

£)er anbere, the other, had formerly the import of ber Jtreite, the second, 

and is still used so in a few expressions ; as, Die ©ewofjnfjeit i|t bte anbere 

9?atur, custom is a second nature. — See also anbertfjalb, and ftlbanber, 

„ page 1 1 9. The English another, signifying one more, must be rendered by 

iu>c& ettt; as, Bring another bottle, bringe nocb etne $lafcfce;— eine an- 

bere $laf(rje would mean another instead of this. 

§ 57. We shall briefly notice here several compounds 
and derivatives formed from the preceding two classes. 
I. From the cardinals are formed: — ■ 

1. Compounds with fad), fold ; as, ^veifadb, twofold; 
fcreifad;, threefold, &c. Similar compounds with faltifl, as 



118 NUMERALS. [§57. 

^WCtf dttiflj twofold, &c, were formerly current, but are now 
getting into disuse; except tyunbertfalti^, hundredfold; and 
taufenbfalti$, thousandfold. (?uifdttt$ has now assumed the 
import of simple-hearted, silly, thus differing from eittfacfr, 
which denotes simple, unaffected. — All these compounds are 
adjectives, and declined as such. 

2. Compounds in erlei, sorts of ; as, ^weievlei $lepfel, two 
sorts of apples ; fedjsevlei ££eine, six sorts of wine ; einerlet, 

one sort, the same. These compounds, though used as ad- 
jectives, are not declined ; probably because their last com- 
ponent part, viz. let (for the er preceding it is merely a geni- 
tive inflection), is an obsolete substantive, denoting kind. 

3. Compounds with mal (or \ml)l), time ; as, breimal* 
three times ; vkxvaoX, four times, &c. 

Obs. 1. $Jtal is written separately after ordinals,, or when a definitive 
precedes the number; as, ba$ btittttylcil, the third time; bte legtt'tt Pier 
$)?ale, the last four times. Some authors, indeed, and perhaps more cor- 
rectly, never compound the number with 9)ifli, but write brei $)?al, flier 
3)tal, &c. ; except etnrnal, if denoting once upon a time (see § 56, Obs. 2), 
which is always written as one word. We may also observe here, that 
these compounds may be formed into adjectives by the annex ig ; as, 
dermatic}, of four times ; Me bunbertmalige^Bteberfjoluncj, the repetition 

of a hundred times. See also the Formation of Words. 

4.) Substantives in er, denoting an object of which the 
number forms some characteristic, known from the context, 
or usage; as, ein ©edbji.qcr, a man of sixty ; eitl %Wclftt 9 a 
piece of money of the value qf\2 ftrei^er (about four pence) ; 
tin (?lfet, wine of the year of 1811. 

II. From the ordinals are formed : — 

1. Compounds with fyalB, half, denoting a half less than 
the number indicates; as, brtttl)al6 (or britte(?al6) ©ttmben, 
two hours and a half{ literally, third half hours) ; tfiertj>ai& 
(or tnertel;al6) 3^Ve, three years and a half For ^Weitfralfc, 
we say anbettljalfc ; as, atlbevtM6 N D?Cilen, a mile and a half*. 



* These compounds must not be confounded with fjn(6 preceded by a car- 
dinal number ; which would signify as many halves as the number indicates. 
Thus, brei i)(iibe ©Hlben, three half guilders ; brittetyaib ©tUfcerti two guilders 
and a half. 



§57.] NUMERALS. 119 

These compounds are indeclinable; and, as may be seen 
from the preceding examples, the substantive following them 
is always in the plural number, even after anbettl)al6. 

2. Compounds with fel6 or fcl6(t, denoting with as many 
others as the number indicates, less one ; as, fcl6bvittC or fel6ff- 
britte, with two others ; (£x fam fel6(i'e6entC, he came with six 
others (literally, himself the seventh); fd6attber, with another. 
—See § 56, Obs. 8. 

3. Adverbs in tw$, answering to the English numeral 
adverbs in ly ; as, erj?Ctt3, firstly ; ^mittwi, secondly ; brifc 
ten$, thirdly, &c. 

Obs. 2. To the foregoing class we may also refer ev\xVl$), firstly, which 
is used indiscriminately with erifen5 ; and legten$, lastly, — its primitive 
fe$t, last, having the nature of an ordinal. @r|t or glierft, at first ; and 
JUlegt, at last, refer to successive events; as, (5rft fam CV, bann fte,ttn& 
glltegt i^re *Sc|)Weffer, first he came, then she, and at last her sister. (5rff 
and It'gt, being superlatives (see page 111), have also the forms am erjten, 
and am le£ten ; which, like all superlatives with am, imply a compa- 
rison (see the Adverbs); as, $# fa§ e$ am erfren, I saw it first (of all). 

4. Substantives in el denoting fractions ; as, em ^vtttct, 
%; %Wi%ii\\fttl, f ; mini 3ttMtt^fte(, $%. Except the frac- 
tion \, which is not expressed by eul 3weitel, but either by 
the substantive .gdlfte, or by the adjective fyalb ; as, bte 
.galfte etne$ $lpfel», the half of an apple ; bfc anbcre |>a!fte, 
the other half; einc M&e ©tunbe, half an hour; mem l)albz$ 
2?ermb#en, half my property. 

Obs. 3. The adjectives fjalfr, half, and ganj, entire, or all, remain un- 
infected before names of places ; as, fnilb COnbOtt, half London; gang 
2)eutfd;lanb, all Germany. However, when the article precedes the 
proper name (§ 49, Obs. 4.), these adjectives are inflected ; as, bie 
jmlbe ©c&roeij, half Switzerland; ba$ cjanse pveteftantifck ^eutfdjianb, 

the whole of Protestant Germany. If not referring to the quantity of the 
nouns following them, but to the substance or composition of another 
object, they are not declined; as, ein 2Befen fjalb 'Sienfd; unb fyalb 
(Sngel, a being half man and half angel; fr ift yan^ Ciefre, he is all love; 
fie i\l ganj 'JiugC, she is all eye. In fact, ganj and fjalb in such cases are 
not adjectives, but adverbs of the same nature as partly and entirely. — 
The words failtcr and ettel, in the sense of none but, or nothing but, are 
adverbs of a similar description ; for they do not limit the noun follow- 



120 THE PRONOUNS. [§ 57. 

ing them, but merely exclude others from the proposition, just like the 
adverb mir, only, exclusively; as, IMlltev (or ettel) ^inber WCLXet\ bcrt, 
none but children (children exclusively) were there. $0l(, full, remains 
likewise undeclined, like ganj and fyalb, if it does not refer to the fol- 
lowing substantive j but if qualifying the following noun, it is declined 
like any other adjective ; as, etn @la3 VCU 2Bein, a glass full of wine ; 

roll $XMbe,futt of joy; ein rolled @la£, a full glass; in DPllem 

2aufe, in full course. 



THE PRONOUN 

may be divided into two principal classes, — viz. into per- 
sonal and definitive pronouns. The personal are pure pro- 
nouns, their chief function being to supply the place of 
nouns. All the others, though also frequently employed as 
substitutes for nouns, and hence justly reckoned among the 
pronouns, seem chiefly intended to define the nouns to 
which they refer, either with regard to their individuality, 
or their extent ; and may, therefore, be comprehended under 
the general name of definitive pronouns *. We do not ex- 
cept even the relatives ; for they too point out a noun, though 
a preceding instead of a following one ; on which account 
they are by some grammarians, not improperly, called re- 
trospective demonstratives f. 

This arrangement of the pronouns is also in perfect agree- 
ment with their declension ; and has, therefore, its practical 
utility. For the personal pronouns are declined in a man- 
ner peculiar to themselves ; whilst the others take, with 
a few deviations, the definitive declension ; which, as we 
have seen, is also the declension of the article (§ 30), and 
sometimes of the adjective (§ 51). 



* It will, consequently, not be considered inconsistent, that, for practical 
purposes, most of these words have been briefly noticed before (§ 29) as defi- 
nitives, and are here treated in detail as pronouns; since they partake of the 
nature both of definitives and of pronouns. — Compare note *, page 133. 

f Hence the words J>er, bte, t)(i$ in German, as well as the English that, 
and their corresponding words in several other languages, are used both as 
relatives and demonstratives. It is therefore incorrect of some grammarians 
to say, that who is equivalent to and he ,- since the relative is not co-ordinate 
with the noun to which it refers, but subordinate to it, like other definitives. 



§ 59.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 121 

To the personals belong also the reflective (§ 60), and the 
indefinite, pronouns jematlb, somebody ', &c. (§ 61). Sub- 
divisions of the definitive pronouns are, the possessive (see 
however § 63), the demonstrative, the relative, and the quan- 
titative* pronouns. 





§ 59. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 


. 




First Pet 


son. 








Singular. 


Plural. 






N. tell, I. 


W\X, 


we. 






G. meiner, of me. 


unfer, of us. 






D. mtr, to me. 


un$, 


to us. 






A. mid?, me. 


tin*, 


us. 






Second Person. 








N. bu, thou. 


i(jr, 


you or 


ye. 




G. beiner, of thee. 


euer, 


of you. 






D. bit', to thee. 


eutf>, 


to you. 






A. bid?, thee. 


euct, 


you. 






Third Person* 








Singular. 






Plural 




masc. fem. 


neut. 




for all genders. 


N. 


Cr, he\. flC, shef. 


«*, 


it. 


fie, they. 


G. 


U'm?V,ofhim. '\ty\'ex,ofher. 


fetner, of it. 


ifirer, of them. 


D. 


t&m, to him. ibt 4 , to her. 


tfjm, to ft. 


t&nen, to them. 


A. 


ihtt, him. flC, her. 


e$, it. 


fie, them. 



* These last pronouns are, in other grammars, arranged under different 
names. However, as they all relate to quantity (see § 66), the present appel- 
lation is perhaps best adapted to their character. The German grammarians 
refer them to the numbers, under the name of indefinite numerals. But, as 
they bear the same analogy to the demonstratives as the indefinite article to 
the definite, it seems inconsistent to refer the former two to different parts of 
speech, whilst the latter two are universally considered as belonging to one 
and the same. It is true, the numbers themselves might be reckoned among 
the quantitative pronouns ; but they have so many peculiarities, and are so often 
used without any reference to substantives, that they are, with more practical 
utility, treated by themselves. 

f The learner will recollect, from § 31, that in German a great many mas- 
culine and feminine substantives are destitute of sex ; and therefore the pro- 
nouns et and fie, referring to such nouns, must be rendered in English by it. 

M 



122 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. [§ 59. 

Obs. 1. The genitives of these pronouns were formerly the same as 
their derivatives, the possessive pronouns, — viz. tttein, betn, fein, linfer, 
euer, ifrr *, — but, in modern times, they have, with the exception of unfer 
and etier, received the addition of ev ; — Dinner, beiner, &c. They are, 
however, yet used in their original form : — 1.) With the verb feijn ; as, 
bet £)Ut i|r meitt (betn, ifff, Itnfer, &c), the hat is mine, (thine, hers, ours, 
&c.)f. 2.) In poetry, after several other verbs which govern the genitive ; 
as, (Sf&arme bt$ fein, have pity on him; $eVfltf? ttietn nid;t, forget me 
not. However, \{)X, of her, or of them, does not occur after these verbs 
without its modern termination er (ifrvev). 3.) If followed by the pre- 
positions weCjen, tfillen, or fjalfrer, on account of; in which case the 
syllable et is annexed to them, and they are combined with the prepo- 
sition into one word ; as, meinetwegen, on my account; beinetit>illen,/or 
thy sake; ifrretttf egen, on her account; lJnferet£al6en,/or our sake, &c. 

Obs. 2. In addressing an individual 2)u, thou, as the second person 
singular, should exclusively be used ; and its plural %fyv, you, in address- 
ing more than one. But, as in most modern European languages, the 
second person singular has been thought too abrupt and unceremonious 
towards higher persons, and accordingly other pronouns have been sub- 
stituted for it. The first innovation was, to use %f)V for 2)u, as in English. 
Afterwards the third person singular was substituted, — namely (fr, in ad- 
dressing a male, and @te, a female. But the plural being considered more 
dignified than the singular, the third person plural was at last adopted ; 
and this custom is now universally established in polite conversation, 
both in addressing one and more persons. The former pronouns of 
address, however, are not entirely disused : 2)tl is employed in all cases 
where conventional politeness would be considered out of place; — 
namely, 1.) In elevated language, as in poetry, and in addressing the 
Deity. 2.) With near relatives, and with intimate friends J. 3.) With infe- 
riors, as a mark, sometimes of unceremonious superiority, and sometimes 
of contempt. — %fyv is used in addressing more than one person, whom 
singly we would not address by @ie, they. Also towards individuals of 
those classes which are not accustomed to refined manners; and they 
themselves likewise use it towards each other. — (5r and @te (she) are 
used often in addressing menials, and inferiors of no education. 

* In still more remote times, this genitive was if)rD, which, before titles, is 
still sometimes found as a possessive pronoun ; as, %i)X0 ^Knjpftrifc, Her or Your 
Majesty (see Obs. 2). 

•f 2Genn fte niemnnbg tft, nf$ (fuer, if she is nobody's but your s (Lessing) ; in 
which euet is obviously in the same case as ntemnnbi?. 

| There are some expressions in German relating to this practice; as, 
2>u^6rubec (from bu^en, to thou), an intimate ; dttf &u tint) tm mit jemnnben fefeen, 
to live on intimate terms with oni. 



j 59.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 123 

The reflective and po9sessiye pronouns, as well as the verb, referring 
to the person addressed, must, of course, correspond with the personal 
pronoun in number and person : thus, for instance, "you think only of 
yourself and your son," would be rendered, either by ^u benfjr ttUV art 

2)t# unb 2)einen ©ofm, or %fyv benfet nur an @u# tint) @ueren (So(m, 
or @r (or @ie, she) benft nur an fid& unb (&etnen (or 3&ren, for) ©ofin, 
or @ie benfen nur an fic& unb 3&ren ©ofw *. All these different 
shades are not without use to authors, in delineating manners and cha- 
racters. 

We may further notice here, that, in reference to titles by which per- 
sons of quality are addressed, (5uer, the possessive of the second person 
plural, is generally used, as the older, and therefore more formal, mode 
of address, retaining, in that case, its old orthography of YO instead of u, 
and abbreviated thus, Q£w. ; as, @tt>. (pronounced euere, or, if in the geni- 
tive or dative case, euerer) @,rcelien$, Your Excellency; @W. Sfftajcjlat, 
Your Majesty f. See also note (*), page 122, and § 64, Obs. 3. 

Obs. 3. The pronoun e#, like it in English, is used sometimes without 
reference to anything mentioned in the sentence; and is then, from its 
indeterminate import, called an indefinite pronoun. It is used thus in 
two ways : 

1. To denote an unascertained object, or objects, of our perception ; 
as, (S§ iff mc'm 6rttber, it (namely, the object previously seen or heard) 
is my brother; 2Ber reitet fo fpat bur# dlafyt unb 2£inb? @$ i\t ber 

2?ater mtt fetnem $tnb, who rides so late in night and wind? it is the 
father with his child; e$ Waren metne (Sc&roetfew, they (literally it) 
were my sisters ; id) bin C», it is I. The verb agrees, as may be seen 
from the last two examples, with the ascertained object, and not with 
e$. We may also remark, that, contrary to the English idiom, the in- 



* @ie denoting you, and 2sl)r denoting your, begin always with a capital ; 
and are thus distinguished from fte, she, or they ; and tfjtr, their, or her. — See 
§ 22, rule 5. As a qualification of that rule, we will add here, that &u and 
Dein are, except in letters, very frequently written without a capital, 

•f- These forms of address, which, as Adelung observes, were in the Middle 
Ages adopted in most European languages from the Latin of those times, are 
supposed to have given rise, in German, to the subsequent use of the pronoun of 
the third person instead of that of the second. For, from addressing persons of rank 
by their dignity rather than in person, and thereby placing the verb in the third 
instead of the second person, a habit may gradually have been created, of con- 
sidering the addressing in the third person more respectful than in the second. 
It is, however, curious, that we find a similar example recorded in the Bible 
itself, and that among the Nomades of the most remote times : — Judah ad- 
dressed Joseph thus : ^ My Lord ashed Jiis servants, saying, Have ye a father 
or a brother? And we said unto my Lord," &c. — (Genesis, chap. xliv. 19 
and 20. ) The inhabitants of Caucasus are mentioned by Klaproth as also using 
the pronoun they for thou. To be addressed by the latter pronoun is con- 
sidered by them, he says, as rude or hostile. 

M 2 



124? REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS. [§ 60. 

definite e<3 cannot begin the proposition, if the ascertained object be de- 
noted by a personal pronoun; as, @r t\i C$ (not C5 if? er), it is he. 

2. With impersonal verbs ; where its import is so very vague and ob- 
scure, that it seems almost to denote the external world in general ; as, 
(5§ regnet, it rains; C5 WCIV 5lbfnb, it was evening; e£ ttMirbe ftt\\xM, it 
became dark ; ©Ott fprad), {$ WCXbC 2\d)t, God said, let there be light; 
e§ WAY einmal ettt 5Tomg, there was once a king. 

It will be seen from the last two examples, that e£ is sometimes ren- 
dered in English by there. When referring to the predicate of a propo- 
sition, e$ is rendered by so; as, ©eftern roar fit reicfr, fteute ifr fie e£ 

tticfrt rnffjr, yesterday she was rich, today she is no longer so. 

@s> is often contracted with the word preceding it; as, @r gab mir'£ 
(for mtV C$), he gave it to me; id) btn'3 (bin e$), it is I. 

Obs. 4. The place of the third personal pronoun is very frequently 
supplied by the demonstratives bcr and berfclbe; and, when governed 
by a preposition, very often by bd compounded with the preposition 
(see § 64, Obs. 3 and 4). The accusative neuter e§, in particular, never 
occurs after a preposition, bdffdbe or ba being always used instead; as, 

3$ fann ofme baffeibe (not ofjne e§) (eben, I can live without it ; fur 
toiflel&e, or bafiix (not fur e$),for it. 



§ 60. REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

If the oblique cases of the personal pronouns refer to the 
same individual as the nominative of the proposition to 
which they belong, they are called reflective pronouns, and 
are expressed in English by myself, thyself himself &c. 
With the exception of ft'cf), himself herself &c, which is 
exclusively reflective, there are no appropriate reflective 
pronouns in German; and the oblique cases of the personal 
pronouns (§ 59) are used indiscriminately, whether the 
person they designate be one and the same individual with 
the nominative, or not. Thus we say, 3$ flctbc mid) an, I 
dress myself; 3'cfr fcfjttietdjk ttrir, I fatter myself; ®U fteibejj 
bid) an, thou dressest thyself; ©U fc&metdMfl: bir, thou flat- 
ter est thyself — in the same manner as we should say, (?r 
fletbet micb an, he dresses me ; (f r fcbmeic&elt miv, he flatters 
me. If the genitive is used reflectively, the word fcl6ff is 
often added, especially in the third person; as, (gv&arme 



§ 60.] REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS. 125 

bid) bemev fetBj?, have pity on thyself; gr fejjcmt fetmv fd6jt 
t\id)t, he does not spare his own self; but this addition of 
fc(6fl is merely emphatic, not reflective (see Obs. 3). 

The dative and accusative of the third person, however, 
have an appropriate reflective pronoun, — namely, fief); which 
serves for both these cases, in all genders and numbers of 
that person, and may accordingly be rendered in English 
thus : — 

Dative, fid), (to or for) himself, herself itself, oneself 
themselves, — also yourself and yourselves (see § 59, Obs. 2). 

Accusative, fid), himself herself itself oneself themselves 
(yourself, and yourselves). 

Ex. (?r (or fie) fleibet ftd) CM, he (or she) dresses himself 
(or herself) ; @ie fdbmeic&eltt fid), they flatter themselves ; 2£tc 
6cffnbcn @ie jtdb? how do you find yourself '? 

Obs. l. If the dative, or accusative, of the third person be under the 
government of a preposition, it must, if referring to the nominative of the 
sentence, still be considered as reflective, and rendered by fid}, though in 
English the simple pronoun is used in that case; as, @r (jatte fein ©efo 
bet fid? (not tfjm), he had no money with him; ©ie Wavf t>a$ Wutf) VCt\ 
fldb, she threw the book away from her. 

Obs. 2. The oblique cases im$, CU#, and fid), are used also in a reci- 
procal sense r denoting each other, or one another; as, 2Btr rerfrejKn UYlS, 
we understand one another ; Hjf)? fCltnt etl$, j/oh #wom/ <?«a6 other ; @ie 
fa&eit ftcft an, ^e>j/ (or you) looked at each other. — See also the reflective 
verbs. 

Obs. 3. In compounds, felfrft has the import of a reflective pronoun, 
like the corresponding English^; as, (Seifrjtltebe, self-love; @elfcfr= 
morb, suicide; ©ClbjttaufcfyunCi, self-delusion. It, however, never occurs 
separately as a pronoun ; but it is often added to a noun, or pronoun, 
merely for the sake of emphasis. Hence, if the English myself thyself 
&c. stand in the same capacity — i. e. are used merely for emphasis' 
sake, without representing a noun — they are always rendered only by 
felfcir or felber; as, I myself saw it, i$ fetb\i (or fel&er) fa\) ii; He is 
goodness itself, M tft Die ©Ute feifcjt; Say yourself faget (or fagett SiC) 
felbfi. But if they are pronouns, supplying the place of a noun, they 
must be rendered in German by the corresponding pronoun, either with 
the addition of felbfr, or not, according as they are emphatic (i. e. equi- 
valent to my own self thy own self &c.) or not ; as, He deceives himself 
er tiufdtt fid) ; — He deceives nobody but himself er tailfcfrt Itiemant', 

M 3 



126 INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. [§ 61. 

al» fid) fel6(!j I am a burden to myself, id) bin mtr felbfr jur Caff. If 
myself, thyself, &c. are not used reflectively, they are generally without 
emphasis, and rendered merely by the corresponding pronoun ; as, He, 
you, and myself, ex, @!C f 1Mb id); He saw only your sister and yourself , 

ex fab mux 31>re &d)m\xex unb @te. 

The expressions by myself, by ourselves, &c. are rendered by alleift, 
alone; as, i" was by myself, id) VOaX allein ; Is he by himself? ifl et 

allein? 

It may be useful to observe also, that fe(6jf is likewise used as a con- 
junction for fo^ax, even; which import it invariably has if at the begin- 
ning of a clause; as, ©elfcft (or fogav) id) fafj e$, even I saw if. 

§ 61. INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The indefinite personal pronouns are, — man, one, they, or 
people ; jemanb, somebody, anybody ; memanfc, nobody, not 
any body ; and jebetmail, everybody. They denote persons, 
without regard to sex, and are employed only in the sin- 
gular. Wlan is indeclinable, being used only in the nomi- 
native; as, 2Jton fcmn i)kt fein et^end Wott nidbt &bren, one 
cannot hear one's own voice here ; Wlan fa#t, baj?, &a, they 
(people) say that, &c. The other three pronouns take in 
the genitive $, and remain uninilected in the dative and 
accusative; in which latter cases, however, jentflttb and 
ttiemanb may take en; as, & flopft jenMttb, somebody is 
knocking ; gafren fie jemanb (or jemanbcn) ? did you see any- 
body ? (gx i(r mentality (or jeberntanS) gretmb, he is nobody's 
(everybody 's) friend ; ©age e£ niemanb (or memanben), tell 

it to nobody ; (it fennt jtebennan, he knows everybody *. 

Obs. The genitive of man, one's, is rendered by the possessive fetlt 
(see the first of the above examples); the dative and accusative, if re- 
flective, are rendered by fid) (see § 60) j otherwise, by the correspond- 
ing cases of Ctner ; which word is also in the nominative often used for 
man; as, 3)? an glaubt fid) gewo&nltc& tfa'rfer, al§ man t fr, ons usually 



* Strictly speaking, the above words are nouns rather than pronouns : 3ft ntl, 
the identical man in English, originally denoted, like the modern word ^ftenfcf), 
a human being, without distinction of sex ; which import, though more indefi- 
nitely, is yet retained in the so-called pronoun. A similar instance is the cor- 
responding French pronoun on, Old French horn,— -a. corruption of the Latin 
homo (man). The other three words are compounded with matt, — the final b 
in jemanb and ntemanfr being a later addition. 



§ 62.] DEFINITIVE PRONOUNS. 127 

thinks one's self stronger than one is; SBiWW CV Cinen flllfiefjet, fo ylaubt 
man, bflf, &c, if he looks at one, one thinks that, &c; @£ f'dnntC einer 
glailben, baf?, &a, one might think that,&c. @t net* is also often used 

instead of jemanb; and its negative feiner, for ntemanb; as, Sperm 
einer (or jemanb) fomtnt, &c, if anybody comes, &c. ; ©age e£ feinem 

(or ntemanb), tell it to nobody. 

§ 62. DEFINITIVE PRONOUNS. 

The definitive pronouns (see § 58), with the exception of 
the relatives bet and iW, are often called adjective pronouns, 
since they may like adjectives be followed by their substan- 
tives. If they do not refer to any noun in the sentence, 
either preceding or following, they are employed substan- 
tively; and what has been said with regard to adjectives 
thus used (§ 52), applies also to them, — viz. in the mascu- 
line gender they denote a man, or merely a person without 
distinction of sex ; in the feminine, a female person ; in the 
neuter, a thing ; and in the plural, persons of either sex, or 
without any reference to sex. 

Those which take the defective declension, and the de- 
monstrative btt, are in some of their cases differently in- 
flected when not followed by their substantives (see §§ 29 
and 64) ; all the others have the same inflections whether 
followed by their substantives or not. It must however be 
observed, that with all definitive pronouns not followed by 
a substantive, the language seems averse to the use of the 
genitive form in e$ or CV — particularly to that in e$ — the 
form in en being generally preferred. Accordingly, in- 
stead of the genitives memeS (or ntemer), welcbe$ (or tvelcfjer), 
biefd, jene$, fbtciW, jtebe^, &c, if not followed by a noun, we 
generally use be$ (or bcr) meim^en (or be$ or bet WCtwn), 
fcefien (or beven), be3jem$a?, etne£ foldben, ehie£ jcben, &c, as 
will be seen from the following sections. 

Obs. The English one, after definitives and adjectives used separately 
from their nouns, is not translated in German ; as, this one, btefev (or 
biefe or biefe$, according to the gender of the substantive understood); 
the red one, bet" (bie or ba£) V0U)e ,* the young ones, bte jtWgen, &c. 



128 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. [§63. 

§ 63. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

The possessive pronouns are, mew, my ; bem, thy ; fein, 
his, its, or one's ; $r, her ; tmfer, our ; etter, your ; \tyx, 
their. They are, as already mentioned (§ 59, Obs. 1.), 
merely the old genitives of the personal pronouns, and 
accordingly supply the place of a noun in the genitive 
case. Thus in the expressions my house, John and his bro- 
ther, my is the substitute of the genitive of the speaker's 
name; his, that of John's. But, unlike other genitives, 
they coalesce like definitives with the following substan- 
tive, agreeing with it in gender, case, and number, and are 
for that purpose provided with appropriate inflections (see 
§ 29.). With respect to the possessor therefore, whose place 
they supply, they are personal pronouns ; but with regard 
to the object possessed or the noun following them, which 
they define, they are definitive pronouns. The learner will 
therefore perceive, that the possessive pronouns distinguish 
the gender of merely the object possessed by inflections, and 
that the distinction of genders denoted by the words fein and 
ifyt refer, like that of the English his and her, to the gender 
of the possessor, and not to that of the following noun ; as, 

fein So&n, his son; femes ©oljnel, of Ms son: feme Xcdjter, 

his daughter; fetneV Xod&tet, of his daughter; — il)r @o{m, her 
son ; u)ve3 (&cl)V£$, of her son : $re Sodbtev, her daughter, 
&c. 

Obs. When not followed by their substantives, the possessives, in- 
stead of taking the complete declension (according to § 29), are often 
preceded by tcx, biC, ba$ (similar to the French le mien, le tien, &c), 
and declined like adjectives preceded by that article. The inflection is 
then annexed either immediately to the pronoun, — as ber, (bie, ba#,) 
meine, beine, feine, unfere, &c, mine, thine, his, ours, &c. Gen. be$ (or 
ber) metnen, &c. — or with tg before it,- i. e. the syllable ig is inserted 
between the pronoun and the inflection; as, ber (btC, or baS) meinigf, 

betni»e, femtge, unSrige, &c; Gen. be» (or ber) meintyen, beiniyen, 
Sec; Dat. bern (or ber) meintyen, beinigen, &c.:— Plur. biemeinigen, 
5c V metntyCn, &c. Thus we may say indifferently, 2)a* iff ni#t mciil 

%v.d), fonbern feineS, or ba§ feine, or ba$ fetnige, this is not my book, 
but his; 3(jr 2>ruber unb unferer, or ber unfere, or ber unferiye, your 



'§ 64.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 129 

brother and ours. However, in the genitive, the form in eft alone is 

used; as bev @o&n mdne$ 9Jac&bat$ unb bie Xocfjtev be$ 3&riflM ( not 

3()re$ : — see § 62), 2fo sora of my neighbour and the daughter of yours.' — 
Nor can these pronouns be used substantively (§ 62) without the defi- 
nite article : as, @5 fmb bte 9)ieintgen (or bte SDietnen), they are my 
people, or also my family — (5$ ftftb ftietne could be said only in refer- 
ence to a substantive just mentioned, and would mean, they are mine ; 
2Die befinben ficfe bte ^^'tgen? how does your family do? We may 
further observe, that the neuter singular, employed substantively, de- 
notes either the property or the duty of a person ; as, (5r |)at ba^ ©ft* 

nige babei t>er(oven, he has lost Ms property by it; ^d) frafce ba§ 5fteU 
ntge geu)an, tfmn ©ie nu» ba$ S^tige, / have done my duty y now do 

yours. 

Instead of the possessives, the genitive of the demonstratives bet and 
berfel&e is often employed.— See § 64, Obs. 3. 

§ 64. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

These are, biefer, this ; jenct*, that ; ber, this, also that ; 
berjem#e (or bewamlictye), that or he (followed by who or 
which) ; berfelBe, the same ; and foldjev, such : — 

1. Stefet and jener have the complete declension (§ 29). 
©tefcr refers to the nearer, or to the latter object, or merely 
to an object just mentioned, and is rendered in English by 
this, or by the latter ; — jener refers to the more remote, or 
to the former object, and is rendered by that, the former, 
or also by the other ; as, ^iWiX $aum tji #rbger aU biefer, 
that tree is larger than this ; ^olge bit Xltcjenb, tcnn btefe 
lltir macfrt bid) ftiutflid), follow virtue, for this alone will make 
you happy s in biefer, imb in jtenev 2Mt, in this, and in the 
other world ; ©Ut, fprad) biefer, well, said the latter : 20a^» 
tief jenet, what, cried the other. 

2. Scr, bte, bft$, merely singles out an object by pointing 
at it, as it were, without implying either nearness or remote- 
ness. It is used with reference to objects present, or just 
mentioned, or, like berjent$e, with reference to a subsequent 
relative ; and may be rendered in English, as the sense re- 
quires, either by this, or by that, or, if employed substan* 
lively, also by he, she, or they. 



ISO DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. [J 64. 

It has two forms of declension ; — namely, 

a.) If followed by its substantive, it is declined like the 
definite article (§ 30) ; with which indeed it is, strictly 
speaking, one and the same word, having merely more em- 
phasis than the latter (§ 56, Obs. 2) ; as, bit' 3)?amt, this' 
(or that') man — bet 9D?amv / j the man' : bte' $vau ba, that/ 
woman there — bte ffiau', the woman ; bci$' ©Itdfr, that' booh 

— ba$ ©itdf/, the book'; @i6 d ben' Beaten, Jvcldbe e3 Btaudben, 
give it to those people who want it—®ib e£ bin airmen, give 
it to the poor, 

b.) If not followed by a substantive, it differs from the 
article ; but only in the genitive of all genders and numbers, 
and in the dative plural, — these cases adding cttto the same 
cases of the article, and moreover doubling the £ ofbe3 } as 
will be seen from the following table : — 





Singular. 




Plural 


masc. 


fern. 


neut. 


for all genders. 


N. ber 


bte 


ba$ 


bie 


G. beiTen or beg 


bcven 


befftn or bef? 


beren or berer* 


D. bm 


bev 


bem 


benen 


A. ben 


bte 


ba$ 


bie. 



Ex. 2Beffen fiani ift ba$ ? Seffen (beren) ba, whose house 
is that P this man's (this woman' s) ; Stcfc ftinbet ft'nb Sftmfen, 
CtBatttlCn ©ie fi'cfj beren, these children are orphans, have pity 
on them ; @i6 e3 benen, bit e$ Braucben, give it to those who 
want it ; Sort ift 3$t ©tuber, fragen © ie ben ; bet nxig e& 

tf/zere 25 ^/owr brother, ask him ; he knows it ; 9?e()nien ®te bte 
^eber, bk ift Beffer, take this pen, this (which) is better. 

3. Serjeru^e (weldber), he (who or zfto), is a compound of 
the definite article and jentg, a derivative of jenet ; but, as 
will be seen from the following table, each component part 



* 2)erer is used only if referring to a subsequent relative clause ; as bte 
ittnber berer, bie fur' 6 53nter(nnb foci) ten, the children of those who fought for their 
country ; — in all other cases beren is more common ; as bte 9?ad)£»nten unb beren 
itinber, the neighbours and their children ; beren gtefrt e$ inefe, of these there are 
■many. 



§64.] 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



131 



is separately declined, — viz. jem$ like an adjective, and ber 
retaining its usual declension : — 







Singular. 




Plural 




masc. 


fern. 


neut. 


for all genders. 


N. 


berienige 


btejentge 


ba*jenige 


btejenigen 


G. 


besjenigert 


berjentgen 


befjenigen 


berjentgen 


D. 


bemjcnigen 


berjentgen 


bemjentgen 


benjenigen 


A. 


benjenigen 


bieienige 


baSjenige. 


btejenigen. 



This demonstrative invariably refers to a subsequent re- 
lative, of which it may be considered as a correlate pro- 
noun ; as, Xraae berojeni$en nicbt, ber btr fcfrmeidbelt, do not 

trust him who flatters you ; ^cl) QCib t$ betj[Cnt^Cn %tail, WtU 
dber e$ $elj6rte, I gave it to that "woman to whom it belonged ; 
SMejtemcjen, nxtcfje bovt waverr, &c, those who were there, &c. 

4. ( Detfel6e, biefelSe, bafje(6e, which exactly answers in 
import to the English, the same, is compounded and declined 
like the preceding bevjem$e, — namely, masculine betfclBe, befc 
fel6en, bemfelBen, benfelBen ; feminine biefetBe, berfelfcen, &c. ; 
as, (?3 ijt berfelfce 9)?cmn tmb baf]~el6e $ferb, it is the same man 

and the same horse; eBcil bicfclBcil CctltC> the very same people; 
\x\ einer unb efcen bevfel6cn ©ttage, m one and the same street. 
It is often used also for the third personal pronoun it, jte, 
i§, and consequently its genitive also for the possessive 
pronouns fein and i()r (see § 63) ; as, (?r $a6 ifym ®d0, unb 
6at il)X\ baffelBe tt?0j>( at^UWen&ett, he gave him money, and 
desired him to employ it {the same) well ; ©te faro roit H)XiX 

@d&tt)e[iet* unb bem 9?ad)&ar bevfel6en, s^e came with her sister 

and her (sister's) neighbour — see Obs. 3. 

QiX, bte, b&§, tiamttdjC, has the same signification and de- 
clension as betfclBe ; but the article is written separately ; 
as, bet 4 1iamlic()e, the same; be3 immltcben, of the same, &c. — 
@el6i#er, fel6i^C 9 feibi#e£, the same, which is declined like 
biefe?, occurs likewise for betfel6e ; but it is growing obsolete. 

5. ©oldfjer, foldbc, folcW answers to the English such, and 
is declined like biefer ; unless preceded by em, a, or fetn, «o, 
when it is declined like an adjective preceded by these de- 
finitives ; as, masc. em folcfcer, eme£ foldben, einem folcjjen, 



132 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. [§ 64. 

euien foldbeti-; fem. eme folcfce, einer fctdbcn, &c. ; Fein foldbev, 
femes foldbetl, &c — Sometimes it is followed by the indefi- 
nite article, but then it remains uninflected ; as, foldb' cm 
$)iamt, such a man ,• folcj)' etne %ttill, suck a woman, &c. 

Obs. I. When implying a contradistinction, btefer and jtener answer 
exactly to the English this and that ; but otherwise, btefer has a more, 
and jener a less, extensive use than their corresponding words in 
English. For btefer may be applied to all present objects which are near 
at hand, though out of our immediate reach (thus one would say in Ger- 
man, btefe Ufjr, or btefer ©ttlhl, in pointing to a watch or a chair at some 
yards distance); whilst jetier, generally, applies only to such as are at some 
considerable distance, btefer maybe applied even to objects far remote in 
space or time: but only if they are familiar to the hearer; otherwise, jener 

must be used; as, @ie finb 3u $om flewefen; ici) mb'cbte btefe freriihmre 

©tabt CtUC^ einmat fefietl, you have been at Rome ; I should like also once 
to see this {that) celebrated city ; (SiceVO, btefer grc§e Sfcblier, Cicero, thu 
{that) great orator; — £$n jeitcn Seitett be» ^berylauben^, in those times of 

superstition; 2Bte htef? bod) jener $f)tiofopf), welder fagte, &c? what 

was the name of that philosopher who said, &c. ? — Past time previously 
defined, is likewise often referred to by biefer; as, %\$ er tftr UncjlUcF 

uernabm, voa$ fjatte er tit btefem 3(ugen&lii? ntcbt fiir He fler&an, when 

he learned her misfortune, what would he not have done at this {that) mo- 
ment for her *. 

2>er is sometimes used for jener, but more generally for btefer; 
particularly in colloquial language; as, bie (or jene) fivau bort, that 

woman{there) ; ber (or btefer) STtfcft, this table; %d) tratte bem (or btefem) 
SEenfc&en ni$t, I do not trust this man; @r fling bm Sfugenfclicf weg, 

he went away this moment. In reference to such nouns, however, as 
include either the present moment of time, or the spot on which the 
person speaking is, btefer alone must be used; as, @r rei|r btefe (not 
Me) 2Bo#e ab, he departs this week ; d$ gefcljafi in btefem #iJUfe, it 

happened in this house (in which we now are,— in bem Jpailfe would refer 
to a house at which we point). — The expression ber unb ber, b\i unb 
bte, &c. answers to the English such and such; as, ©pradKn @te ntcbt 
ttttt bem Ut\b bem ? did you not speak with such and such a person? 



* £ier, here, the corresponding adverb of btefer, is often used in a similar 
manner ; for example, 3US er in ben @nn( trot, wax er ii&er. bie tytafyt erfrnunt, 
bie er r)ter jYif), when he entered the saloon, he was astonished at the splendour 
which he saw here (there). — It would therefore appear to be a general practice 
in German, that when the mind is wholly engaged with an object, that object 
is considered as immediately present ; the actually present point of space, or 
time, being lost sight of. 



§ 6'k] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 133 

It will be seen from some of the examples in this section, that the 
adverbs fjier, bert, and ba, are, for emphasis' sake, often added to the 
demonstratives bkfit, jeiier, and ber, with which they correspond to a 
certain degree. 2) a is sometimes rendered by here, and often by there, 
— just as its corresponding demonstrative bet* answers to the English 
this and that; as, ®fl bin t#, here am I; 2Der ifr ba? who is there? 
fytV tinb ba, here and there. 

Ohs. 2. The neuter demonstratives btcfei? and ba$ are often used for 
all genders and numbers, in reference to objects predicated by a noun 
or pronoun; in which case biefeS is generally contracted into bie$ or 
btef?; as, 2)iefe£ (or bie$) tjr mein JSruber, this is my brother; 3)ie£ (or 

bte£) finb meine <S#tt>ef?ern, these (literally this) are my sisters ; 6titb 

<&ie ba$? is (literally are) that you? 2)a* finb bte #olgen feiner ©rjte- 

&un$, fA<?se (^a£) are Vie results of his education ; £>a£ ij? eitl ^etger, 
that is a coward. It will be seen from these examples, that the verb in 
such cases does not agree with the demonstrative, but with the sub- 
stantive, or personal pronoun. A similar usage we have observed with 
the indefinite e£ (§ 59, Obs. 3) ; to which pronoun, indeed, these de- 
monstratives are quite analogous ; for they too relate to an object un- 
ascertained, — at least with regard to its essence, or name. Thus if we 
say, "that is my brother," that denotes merely an object of perception, 
a being in general, of whose characteristic we are ignorant, and which 
is therefore denoted by the words " is my brother." Hence they occur 
so only with verbs used in assigning to an object its character, or name, — 
viz. with the verb feijn, to be (as in the above examples); if txbtft,to be- 
come ; (Kijjetl, to call, or to be called ; and ncnncn, to name ; as, QciS 
ttHfb einf? etn yefcfritf ter 5)?ann merben, that will become one day a clever 

man; 2>ie» fm£t tin %ixf el, this is called a circle ; 2)a$ ncnnt man etnen 

3a3b&Utlb, that they call a hound. 

Obs. 3. The demonstratives biefcr and bcr are often employed in the 
manner of personal pronouns, as substitutes for the names of objects 
present, or just mentioned; and are therefore, if relating to persons, 
rendered in English by he, she, or they,— the corresponding English this 
and that being seldom applied in this manner to persons *. — See page 1 SO. 

* Thus we may say in English in reference to things, " this, or these, I like ;" 
"that, or those, I had seen before;" but seldom in reference to persons. 
Though, formerly, they must have been very generally so used also in refer- 
ence to persons ; as may be seen from the circumstance that the Anglo-Saxon 
tka, dative tham (the plural of the demonstrative se, seo, thcet, that), has be- 
come in English they, them ; in other words, the English personal pronoun 
they, them, was originally a demonstrative signifying those ; — in which original 
acceptation the common people still say, " them trees," " them books," &c. 

This observation serves, at the same time, to show, that the classification of 
those grammarians is not unexceptionable, who consider the adjective pro- 
nouns (and consequently also the demonstratives) as mere definitives, thereby 
excluding them entirely from the pronouns. 

N 



134 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. .[§ 64r* 

They are, in such cases, distinguished from the personal pronouns merely 
by emphasis ; having, from their demonstrative nature, the verbal accent; 
which the personal seldom have in German; as, 5Ba$ will ber* or bie' 
[btefcr or biefe] ? what does he or she (that man or woman) want? W&§ 
Will et or fie ? m&a£ does he or sAe (/^e man or woman) want? 

However, the genitive of ber, bie, ba5*, is often used without any 
emphasis, merely for feiner and iljrer, the genitive of the personal pro- 
nouns, and, consequently, also for the possessive pronouns fetn and i&t' 
(see § 63) ; as, (5$ gfrt beren (or ihrev) Piele, there are many of them; 

§ie lub invert 3lad)bar unb betfen (or feine) ^amtlie e'm,ske invited her 

neighbour and his family; 3'hre £inber unb beren 2e|»rer, your children- 
and their teacher. In general, however, the genitives beffen and beren, 
as well as the demonstrative berfelfce (see page 131), are used as per- 
sonal, or possessive, pronouns, merely in reference to a noun or pro- 
noun in the oblique case, or to that last mentioned; and, accord- 
ingly, serve often to prevent ambiguity, in cases where the antecedent 
referred to by the pronoun could not be ascertained by other circum- 
stances; as, @r fpradf) mtt feinem 25ruber irber betTen ^nfleleflenheiten, 

he spoke with his brother on his {the brother's) affairs (feine ^fngelegen- 

beiten might mean his own affairs); unfer 9?arf>&ar, ffin 55rufcer, unb 
ber <5c&n beflef&en (or betTen ©c&n), waren ge^enwiirtip, our neighbour, 

his brother, and the son of the latter, were present; (5r fdyte meinem 

2?ruber, ba£ ber 2}ucfnjanbler bemfelben bie £iicl>er )cbitfcn nuirbe, he 

told my brother that the bookseller would send him {my brother) the books. 
The plural biefeften, and the genitive plural beren, which, according 
to the preceding remark, may be used for fie, they, and thr, their, are, 
consistently with what has been said § 59, Obs. 2, also used in address- 
ing persons for you and your; in which, case, however, the old genitive 
form bet'O is used instead of the modern form beren. But this mode of 
address is employed only in ceremonious and official language, towards 
persons high in office or rank. In such cases these words are often 
compounded with £ocb, £)'ocbft,and SUfertJodJf?, according to the dignity 

of the person addressed; as, Ajdchftbiefelfren fiacen j^erufjet 311 frefeMen, 

&c, you {your Royal Highness) have been pleased to order, &c. ; 9l(ltr* 
frricrtftbero 2>efe()l, your {your Majesty's) command. 

Obs. 4. If the dative or accusative of the demonstrative ber, bie, ba$, 
or of the third personal pronouns er, fie, e?, be under the government 
of a preposition, its place is often supplied, in all genders and numbers, 
by the particle ba, there ; which is then prefixed to the preposition, 

* The genitive of biefer and jenet is seldom used without a substantive 
(see § 62) ; except in the expression ber Uefcerfrrtiifler biefeS, the bearer of this 
(writing) ; and in dates ; as, ben 20 btefeS, the 20th of this {month), which are 
terras in ordinary use. 



§64.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 135 

making compounds of the same nature and form as the English thereby, 
therewith, &c. j as, ba*jU, (thereto) to that, to it, or to them ; bamtt, (there- 
with) with that, with it, or with them ; baftir, for that, for it, &c. If the 
preposition begins with a vowel — as an, auf, CLU$, &c. — X is inserted 
between the two component parts; as, baran, baratlf, barau$, &c. In 
the compound with nacfr, after, this r occurs also sometimes ; as bavrtfl$ 
for banacfc.- The compound barin changes in into etn, when implying 
a motion or direction to an object ; as, (5$ IteCjt bartn, it lies in that; — 
£ege C» baretn, lay it into that. All prepositions governing the dative or 
the accusative (see the prepositions) may be compounded in this man- 
ner, except aufer, out of; neb|t, besides; fammt, together with; feit, 
since; and? fcnc, without. These compounds are used in reference to any 
t)bject (except persons) that does not particularly engage our attention ; 
as, £ter ilr befferer 2Betn, trtnfen @te bacon (for con bem), here is better 

wine, drink of that ; liefer £jtlt mtt etner fttbtV baratlf, this hat with a 

feather in it; 2) a $ f?nb fcbb'ne JJferbe, wa$ pevtangen @ie bafiir (for fiir 

fie) ? these are fine horses, what do you ask for them ? They very fre- 
quently relate merely to a proposition ; as, 3$ §oht ntcfrt^ bagegcn, / 
have no objection to it (namely, to what has just been proposed) ; (£r 
faryte @C(b Ctjtie mtr CtWa^ baPOn $U fagcn, he borrowed money without 
telling me anything of it. But they are never used with reference to 
persons, or to such things as engross our attention ; as, 3$ fenne ben 

3Nann, i# &afre oft mtt tym (not bamit) gefprccfcen, I know the man, I 

have often spoken with him ; (Sin ttHCfctiger ftugen&ttCf, PCn tf*m (not ba> 
ton) bangt mcin @#itffa( Ah, an important moment, my fate depends on 
it. — The adverb occurs sometimes separate from the preposition, other 
words being placed between; as, 2>a ft'p (Sett fur (for baftir, &c), God 
forbid; Xa lajjt fid) (*&te mtt etnle^en (for bamit), by that, honour may ' 
be acquired. But this separation is not approved of by grammarians. 

Ajter, here, is likewise compounded with prepositions, and used for 
Mefer in the same manner as ba is for bet* ; as, permit, herewith, with, 
this ; pterin, in this, &c. These compounds are, however, of a more 
limited use than the preceding, and employed chiefly in reference to a 
proposition ; as, £terau5 f ann man fe&en, ba$ er, &c, out of this (namely, 

of what has been said) it may be seen that he, &c. ; £)ier<£Uf gilly er W($, 
hereupon he went away. Before prepositions beginning with a conso- 
nant, fcter may drop its r ; as, (ncuiit, fciejll, &c. — In conclusion we may 
observe, that all these compounds have, as in English, the accent on 
the second component part — bamit', therewith; fykrauf, hereupon, &c. 
— unless the first has an antithetical emphasis. — See § 18, and § 19, 
remark 3. 

Obs. 5. In the use of the indefinite article with the demonstrative 
fjMcfcer, such, the idiom ot the two languages is the same— that is, the 
demonstrative is in German attended by the article, only when it is 

M 2 



136 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. [§ 65, 

done in English ; though, in English, it always follows the demonstra- 
tive, whilst in German it more generally precedes it ; as, etn fclcfrer 
SSlann, such aman; eitie fcl#e Sfacfrt, such a night; fofc^e Xtlyenb, *ac& 
'virtue; fol$C3 2Baffer, swc£ water; foffJ&e CfUte, mc£ people. The 
article may, however, also follow the demonstrative. See page 132. In 
this latter case the particle fo is sometimes used for foict?tt > as, fo 
fitter, such a one ; fo eitie $rail, swc^ a woman. 

Instead of fclcfter, if unpreceded by an article, the compound beryfeis 
fliett, the like, is often employed, for all genders and numbers; as, bercjlei: 
fjien 2Bein, s«rA ivine ; ber#fei#et1 l}eilte, ;racA people. However, if not 
followed by a substantive, berCjfeicfrett is confined to the feminine gender 
and the plural number ; in reference to masculine and neuter nouns, 
fce^yletcfjetl must be used, according to the usual distinction of the geni- 
tive forms be£ and bet*; as, 2>a5 i|t guter 2Beitt, besgleicfren finbet man 

fefteit, that is good wine, the like is seldom met with ;—'§)$$ ftttb QUte 
SBeilie, ber^leid^en &c, these are good wines, the like &c.f 

In formal and ceremonious language, foffjKr is sometimes used for 
the third personal pronoun ; as, "5>ev ^b'nty Urn ye|tern an ; unb fofdier 
(for fr) gebenft, &c, the king arrived yesterday; and he intends, &c. ; 
3$ babt folC&e$ &erett^ Oevncmmen, I have already heard it. 

Finally we may observe, that the English as following such, must be 
rendered in German by trie or als, if implying a similitude to an object; 
and by if elc^er, if it implies the belonging to a class, described by the 
following relative clause; as, Such a hero as he, eitt fol'cfrer Jpelb trie et*; 

Such animals as live in the water, fclcfre X&iere, wefefce im Staffer le&ett. 

If such relates to the intenseness of its noun, as is rendered by ba$; as, 
He was in such a passion as to be unable to speak, e? Wat itl eittettt fol(|)ett 

3orne, baf? er i\ii)t fpreefcen fenttte. 

§ 65. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

These are, ber, bie, ba$ 9 that, who, or which; wdefrer, Wlc&e, 
W&d)Z$, who, or which ; and VOiX, who, with its neuter Jtm£, 
what. — ^Belcfeet, VOtX, and Wa3, are used also interrogatively ; 
which forms, however, no etymological distinction. — See 
Obs. 2. 

1. "Set 4 , bie, ba$, has the declension of the demonstrative 
ber, given page 130. However, the second genitive forms, 
fcej? and berer, are never used relatively. (See also note *, 
page 130). 

f The same distinction must be made if these compounds are used rela- 
tively ; as, 2Bein beSg(etrf)en (or SBetne fcergteicfyen) man feften ftn&et, wine (or 
wines) the like of which is seldom met with. .. > 



j 65."} RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 137 

2. 5S>eldE>et has the complete declension (§ 29). This, as 
well as the preceding relative fret 4 , may refer both to persons 
and things. 

Obs. 1. In exclamations, wctrjjer signifies what; and, if followed by 
the indefinite article, it drops the inflection; as, welch' em SOutttn ! ivhat 
a man! wetcf?' eine $rait ! what a woman! — Poets omit sometimes the 
inflection even if not followed by the article ; as, 3Bel(J)' (for ivelc|?f^) 
©liiCf fcflfre t# Oerfc^ergt ! what happiness I have trifled away! 

3. 2£er can be used only with reference to persons (see 
the second rule below). It has no inflections to distinguish 
the feminine gender, or the plural number. Its neuter gen- 
der tt>a$ answers exactly to the English what (see however 
Obs. 4. rem. 2) ; but it is never used in the dative, and very 
seldom in the genitive. The declension of this pronoun is 
as follows : — 

For both sexes and numbers. Neuter. 

-N. wer, who. wa?, what. 

G. weffen (or roef?), ivlwse. weffen (or we£), of what. 

D. went, to whom. • 

A. wen, whom. wa$, what. 

With regard to the use of these three pronouns, the fol- 
lowing rules may be observed: — 

I. If referring to an antecedent expressed, all the English 
relatives, who, which, or that, may be rendered indifferently 
by WclcJbcr or bit, but never by U?er ; as, The man who was 
here, bet SJtolin, weldber" — or btt—tyiit Wat; The woman whom 
I saw, bk $rau, bie — or Weldbe — id) fafe; The children to whom 
he gave it, bic fttnbet, bencn— or w\d)i\\— it e$ #a6 ; The book 
that you bought, ba$ $ucj>, weldbeS — or ba$ — ©ic f attften ; &c. 

However, the genitive of Jfelcfre? is very seldom used in 
such cases, but mostly that of ber alone (see § 62) ; as, Set 

3tfami, befien (not welcbei) 35tot&, tmb bk %tau, beren (not 
welder) Xuqenb wit fo feljr fcettumbem, &c, the man whose 
courage, and the woman whose virtue, we admire so much, fyc. ; 
S)te 2?er6rd;en, beren cv awjefla^t nmrfre, &c, the crimes of 
which he was accused, fyc. 

N 3 



3 33 RELATIVE PRONOUNS, [$ 65. 

Ofo. 2. If the nominative of the relative is followed by a personal 
pronoun with which it stands in apposition, (which is often done in 
German in order to make the verb agree with the personal pronoun — 
as will be explained in the syntax,) btv, and not wefd&er, is used ; as, 
3#j btt t<f> niC ®ttb bC\'$C, I, who never borrow money; $fyY, bit %fyt 
m\&) fennet, you, who know me. On the other hand, if the relative 
refers to a mere proposition, and not to any noun, wtt&CV seems pre- 
ferable to per; as SBenn er mir ba$ @e(b auc& sebett wellte, wefcfreS er 
gettHf? tttcfrt tolltt With, &c. «?ew j/7*<? would give me the money, which he 
certainly will not, fyc. 

II. But if who and wfoV^ cannot be referred to an ante- 
cedent expressed, or if which is followed by a substantive, 
which must be rendered by x$t\d)iK exclusively, and who by 
wit; as, TFvM of these books? n?eldbe$ tnefer ^itc&cr? / <fo 
7?ctf ^wote? wfoc/j e/* these boys (or tt?^/c£ Z>oz/) did it, id) twi(J 
Jitc&t wldber fcnefer Sna6en (or n>elc&er Rnafa) e£ t^at; Jfifo 
25^^ wtt ift er? Wte fows*? is that? mfftn $ca\§ ift 
$>a$? I know whom he marries, id) ttJCtj? ttMt Ct* (watyet; 
W%o ar*? they ? mt (tnb (iC ? W20 sfca/s wzj/ _pwrs*, steals 

trash, mt mem (Mb ftiefrtt, flie&lt £anb. 

Ofo. 3. From the last example it will be perceived, that wtr, like 
who in English, maybe used in an indefinite sense for berjcnige weld&er, 
&e (i. e. any person) who. The relative cer is sometimes used in this 
manner in reference to particular or defined objects; as 25ie (for bit- 
Jensen bit) abtv gegeffen fatten, btxtn wavtn bet filnf taufenfc 9J?ann, 

&<£ £/*<??/ that had eaten were about Jive thousand men ; 2>ie (for ptejenigf 

m\&>t) ipr fucfct, itr bit 29raut be£ $tmme^, s/^ whom you seek is the 
bride of heaven. In expressing a wish, not only the demonstrative, but 
also the whole clause belonging to it, is sometimes omitted, if it can be 
easily supplied in the mind ; particularly in wishing anything improbable 
or impossible ; as %a, WtV bd§ fbnitte, yes, he who could do that (supply, 

he would be clever); (Silence 2Bolfen ! ©efller btt CUfte ! 2Ber miteucfr 

ivanbtYtt, mit t\\tf) fcfcijfte (Schiller), Hurrying clouds! sailers of the 
air ! (happy he) who could roam, who could sail with you! 

The omission of the relative pronoun however, which is so frequent 
in English, never takes place in German ; thus the book I bought, must 
be rendered, ba$ $U#, Wt\ti)t$ {which) id} fattfte. 

Obs. 4. As already observed, tt>a#, generally, corresponds to the En- 
glish what; as, 2Bag fagte er Hf&nen? what did he tell you? $Ba$ er 
3&nen fagte tjl Wafyt, what he told you is true. We must however remark: 



§ 65.] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 139 

1.) If the English ivhat refers to a following substantive, it either 
relates to the individuality of it (i. e. we wish merely to ascertain by 
it an individual object out of many), or to its characteristic. In the 
former case, where it is nearly equivalent to which, it is rendered by 
roelcfcer ; as, In what street does he live? in welder (Strafe wo&nt er? 

On what day ? an weldOem Sa$e ? — In the latter case it is rendered by 
voa$ fur ein; as, What tree is this? tva$ filr em 25aum ift &as ; You see 

what a friend he is, @ie fe&en Wa$ ftix em ^reunb er tft; I have a good 
horse, what sort of a one have you? i# fyabc em gutej $ferb, Wa» filr 
eine£ fjaben @te? Thus also in exclamations; as, O, what a man your 
father is / wa$ f'UX em statin l)x 3&r 2?ater ! In the last example but 
one, ein has the complete declension, the substantive being understood 
(see § 29). Before substantives not susceptible of the indefinite article 
— for instance, if denoting matter, or if in the plural number — etn is 

omitted; as, 2Da$ fur Sucfi, unb wa$ ftir flnopfe, rooflen ®te fyaUw? 

what cloth, and what buttons, will you have? If such substantives as do 
not admit of ein have been mentioned before, wefcfrer is sometimes 
substituted for them; but it is better to repeat the substantive; as, 

Qas ftnb ftlfcerne tfnopfe, wa§ fiir welcpe (better wa$ fur £n'o>fe) 

tfOllen @ie fjafcett? these are silver buttons, what buttons will you have? 
— 215a i? and fiir are often separated by the intervention of the nomina- 
tive, and sometimes also of the verb : the above examples, for instance, 

might also run thus, 2Ba» weUen fie fiir Jlnb'pfe fmben? D w&§ if! 3&r 
2?ater fiir ein $)?ann ! 

2.) 2Ba$ should, like its masculine wer, and like the English what, 
never refer to an antecedent expressed ; yet it is generally used also in 
reference to the neuter gender of pronouns, if they do not represent 
any substantive mentioned, but have a collective, or indefinite sense, 
or refer to a proposition ; as Wix lernten Dieted, wa$ wix tjor&er ntcbt 

ttWJjten, we learned much that we did not know before ; %\\Z§, YVa$ tcfl 
fefje unb f/ore, &c, all that I see and hear, $c; 2>a$, wa$ (X mir fagte 
ijt WdbX, that which he told me is true. — The antecedent ba$, in the last 
example, may be omitted (see the first example of this observation). It 
can, however, never be omitted if governed by a preposition, which is 
so generally done in English; as, 3$ urt(jei(te all* bem, WCl§ (not au$ 
n>a$) er mir faa,te, ba$, &c, I judged from what he told me, that, fyc. 

S.) The genitive and dative of tt*-a5 — viz. weffen or wef>, and tt>em — 
were formerly in frequent use : the former still occurs in the Bible ; for 
instance, St. Matthew, chap. 12. ver. 34. SBefJen ba$ £jerj V0\l if?, bef? 
ge&et ber 5JiUnb Uber, literally, of what the heart is full, of that the mouth 
overflows ; but went is now used only in reference to persons, so that 
tva$, in modern German, is without a dative. However, wa$ occurs 
sometimes uninflected after prepositions that govern that case; as, mit 
toai ? with what? POn Wa$ ? of what?— though the use of the com- 



140 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. [§65. 

pounds WOttttt, wherewith; WODOn, wherefrom, &c. (see the following 
observation), is more general in such instances, and more correct. 

4.) In familiar language, tt>a? is used sometimes in the sense of why; 
as, 2Da$ lacfcf? bu? why dost thou laugh? 2£a? fcforeiet.er? what does 

he cry for ? 

Obs. 5. There are also a few adverbs employed as relatives, which we 
must notice here. 

1.) (So, so, is sometimes (chiefly in poetry) used as a relative pronoun 
for all genders and numbers ; but only in the nominative and accusative ; 
as, 3)ie 25(Urtie, fo bort HU&ete, the flower which blossomed there ; 2?0n 

alien, fo oa famen, of all ivho came. 

2.) 2Bo, like the English where, is used often relatively; chiefly in refer- 
ence to places; as, tyn jener ©telle, wo ba$ $au$ ftanb, on that spot where 
(on which) the house stood. As a relative it is also compounded with the 
same prepositions as bd (see § 64, Obs. A.), and may then, like this par- 
ticle, refer to any noun not denominating persons. It therefore answers 
in these compounds to the English what or which, but never to who ; as, 
2H)0mit fann \&> 31>nen btenen? with what (or wherewith) can I serve 

you? 3$ wetfl rooburcfr @ie i&n beleibtnt fcafcen, / know by what you 

have offended him ; 3)a$ fl'nb $ingft WOVOtt id) tticj)t$ WUfJte, these are 
things of which I knew nothing. As may partly be seen from the pre- 
ceding examples, these relative compounds are formed in the same 
manner as the demonstrative compounds mentioned § 64, Obs. 4 : and, 
accordingly, the letter r is also in them inserted before prepositions be- 
ginning with a vowel ; as, WOrii&er, at what, or which ; WOritt, ttweitt, 
in what, or which; WOrflllf, luhereupon, &c. 

3.) 2) a is sometimes used as a relative, — especially in reference to 
time; as, 311 bem augenblitfe, ba (for in welc&em) cr micfc fafj, at the 

moment in which he saw me. We may also observe here, that if a mono- 
syllabic relative is followed immediately by its verb, bd is often placed 
as an expletive after the relative,- as, @r fep, mv bz WQltt, let him be 
who he may ; 2lUe$, ttU5 bit lebt, all that lives. 

Obs. 6. It has been justly observed by some English grammarians, 
that an interrogative pronoun is but a relative referring to a noun un- 
derstood, or expected in the answer; thus, "Who did it? " is tanta*- 
mount to " Tell me the man who did it." In German, therefore, as in 
other languages, there is no difference between interrogative and rela- 
tive pronouns ; and the only thing to be considered (as observed above) 
is, whether the antecedent of these pronouns is expressed, or not. The 
latter, it is true, is always the ease with interrogatives ; but this omission 
of the antecedent cannot constitute a characteristic of them, since it 
often takes place also with relatives, as may be 6een in the above ex- 
amples. 



§ 66.} QUANTITATIVE PRONOUNS. 141 

We may add here, that all the interrogative* — roer, tt?a$, welfyev, and 
WO — are in familiar language used in the indefinite sense of some ; — viz. 

rcer for jemanb, somebody; wa$ for etwa$, something; roelc&er for eintger, 

some; and WO for irgenb WC, somewhere; as, %\i tt?er (jemailb) franf im 
^aufe? w any one ill in the house f @r &3t ^finen ttM$ \W fayCH, Ae? £a* 

to tell you something ; 3cfc (>a6e feine 2>iich*er, aber mem 25ruber hat 

JVe^e, I have no books, but my brother has some ; 3$ \)Qki ifM WO Qe* 
fefjeH, I have seen him somewhere, 

§ 66. QUANTITATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Under this name we comprehend the following : — jeber, 
je^licfcer, or jebiVeber (of which the latter two are falling into 
disuse), every, each ,• allev, all ; mancbet, many a one ; eim= 
$W, some ; etltcbe (used only in the plural), some ; ttiefntre 
(pi.), several; fein, no, not a ,• tftel, wzwc/z, or many; and 
H)em#, ##fe, or few ,• with their comparatives m&)X and 
U>em#er. and their superlatives JtlCtfl and Weni^ft (§ 55). 

To these may, perhaps, be added, 6cibe, fotf^; ctlKf, one$ 
and anbere, others; of which we have treated under the head 
of Numbers. 

Rt'm is declined like ttieitt (§ 29) ; all the others have the 
complete declension of definitives (§ 29). Except t?iel and 
tt?ent# ; for although these two often have the same declen- 
sion, — as, ttJeni^e 2)?i$e, little trouble ; wit trielem (Belbe, 
w»7A W2wc# money, &c. — yet, in the singular, they more gene- 
rally remain uninflected, especially tt>eni# ; as, ttiel Staffer 
Utlb ttJent,9 $l>em, much water and little wine ; ntit-tVClli^ 2£i$ 
Wlb tftel 2tef)a$en, with little wit and much self-complacency. 
In the plural, however, they are oftener inflected than not ; 
and in the genitive, the inflection is, indeed, indispensable; 
as, n?eni#e $ht$en6licfe, few moments; wad) vickn 3al;ren, 

after many years ; cin 2?ater meter (not mel) j?inbev, a father 
of many children. When used substantively (§ 62), they are 
always inflected ; as, (f r fennt tfiele, ifr a(kr ttltr V OH Wemgetl 
gefamit, he knows many, but is known only by few *. 

* The uninflected uie( and rcenig would seem to partake somewhat of the 
nature of substantives, and to be jmrtilives, and not definitives, — that is, de*. 
noting a part of the following substantive, but leaving that substantive itself 



H2 QUANTITATIVE PRONOUNS. [$ 66. 

If preceded by any definitive, they are declined like an 
adjective; as, ba§ VkU (BclD, the great deal of money ; rnetn 
tt>em$e3 2?entt6$en, my little property. This is invariably the 
case with their superlatives, they being always preceded 
by a definitive ; as, brt ttteijten 3)?enfcben, most people ; fcaS 
tt?eni^fre, the least. 

But their comparatives remain, very generally, unin- 
fected — especially mcjjr ; as, (it l;at mci;v SBviiber imb mm 

Cjcr ©cbiVCjlcvn div id) 9 he has more brothers and fewer sisters 
than I ; mi m\}K ©Uicf aU 2?erfhtttb, with more good luck 
than wit ; ^cb \)Cibi bcmi mcbr, I have more of them. 

3cbct is also declined like an adjective if preceded by ein, — 
viz, Nominative, ein jeber, cine jebc, ein jebe$; Genitive, eine£ 
jeben, einer jcbcn, &c. There is, however, no difference in 
the import of jeber, whether preceded by ein, or not. 

Obs. 1. We add the following particulars respecting the use of the 
above pronouns : — 

1.) 3'eber is not used in the plural, except in the expression alle tinfc 
)(ke t all and each; and the English every, referring to a substantive in 
the plural number, is generally rendered by alle ; as, every seven years, 
alle ftefcen 3a&re ; every three hours, alle bret ©tunben. 

2.) filler, followed by another definitive, is often used without any 
inflection; as, all (for alle5) btefe$ (Selb, all this money; all (for alle) 
meine S^ac^barn, all my neighbours. If preceded by another definitive, 
it, generally, changes in the dative singular the final m into n ; a?, bet 
bem alien (for allem), with all this ; but in all the other cases it retains 
its usual complete declension. It is frequently placed after the verb, as 
in English ; as, 9)?eine ^veunbe fjafren mt# alle cevlafTen, my friends have 
all forsaken me.— When preceded by O&ne, it denotes any; as, efjne alien 

unlimited. Thus mtt Diet SSergniigen would, grammatically, be equivalent to 
with a great deal of pleasure ; and roenig Seute, to a small number of people ; 
whilst mtt oielem SSergniigen simply means with much pleasure; and mcniijR Seutc, 
few people. This would account for the practice, formerly much in use, of the 
substantive taking the genitive inflection after the uninflected tuel and rcenig, 
— such expressions as uirt SSiefyeS, much (of) cattle ; rcentfl 3Bai7er$, little (of) 
water, &c. being of frequent occurrence in the Bible. And it is still not 
quite out of use in a few instances ; as, uief 2luffye(?en$ (or uiel 50efen$) niadjen, 
to make much ado ,■ though, in general, the substantive is put in apposition with 
these words, in the same manner as it is with substantives denoting quantity ; 
and we say now, uiel SBicf), and roertig QBnjTer, as we say, eine Wienqe SBier), a 
number of cattle ; ein Sropfen %8afttx, a drop of water; ein Spfunb Surfer, a pound 
of sugar. 



§66.] QUANTITATIVE PRONOUNS* 143 

3lVCifeI, without any doubt. If the English all is used in the Sense of 
whole, or the whole of, it is mostly rendered in German by 0, an j, and 
riot by aller ; as, all England, gatlj @tl$lanb ; all the nation, tk %at\]t 
Station; all the year, ba3 ganje %at)t. Finally we observe, that though 
aller may be followed by demonstratives, as in the above example?, it 
is, in general, not followed by the article; as, aik (not alle bte) (Stable 
POn QuYCpa, all the towns of Europe; alter 2Betn, all the wine. If, 
however, the substantive after alltv is the antecedent to a relative 
clause, aller is sometimes followed by ber, bte, ba$, answering to the 
English the; as, Wn all bem ©uten, ba§ nur @u# nicftt genua, t>erbam 

fen frinneit (Lessing), mith all the good, for which we cannot sufficiently 
thank you. Before infinite, betnige, &c. (see § 63, Obs.) the article 
cannot be dispensed with, though preceded by all; as, alt ba$ Setnige, 
all his property. 

3.) SSftancfter denotes a plurality of single and unconnected objects, 
detached from each other in space or time, or intermixed with others 
of a different quality, — which idea is aptly expressed in English by 
many a one; as, dandier £elb fi'el in jener ©dblactn, many a hero fell 

in that battle ; 3$ frace manrften frozen Xag in feinem paufe juge* 

brac^t, / have spent many a happy day at his house, — that is, at different 
periods. This idea of intermixture is prevalent also in the plural, and 
forms its principal distinction from ttiebtere, several, and ciele, many, 
which refer merely to the extent of the quantity. Thus, (5$ roarett 
mand)e ^enfeben im 3imiWr> bie e5 fr&en, there ivere many (or several) 
people in the room who saw it, would imply that there were others there 
who did not see it; but if all those who were in the room saw it, their 
number must be denoted by einige, tne&rere, or piele, according to its 
extent, but not by manefce. 

4.) (5 iniger is more generally employed in the plural, without being 
however unusual in the singular, where it is principally used before ag- 
gregate and abstract nouns; as, 3>er £einb pevlcr einige» (Sefcfcufj, the 

enemy lost some artillery ; etntge ^JiUfje, some trouble. 

5.) 2?ie( and trentg are used sometimes in the sense of kinds of, in 
which case they are always inflected. As these words, when denoting 
much and little, are generally uninflected, more especially in the nom. 
masc, and the nom. and accus. neuter, there arises sometimes a nice 
distinction between the inflected and uninflected v'lCl and wenig ; a?, 
3$ trinfe wenig s Bein, weil weniger 2Dein unt>erfatfdn if?, I drink little 

wine, because few wines are unadulterated ; 2?tel $ier if? Ungefunb, 
much beer is not healthy ; s $iele$ 2>ICr if? Ungefunb, many beers are un- 
wholesome. 

Like the grammatical root of adjectives (§ 50), the uninflected Diet 
and tt>enig may be used, both abstractedly and adverbially; as, ^ai 
ill roentO. (or Ptei), that is little (or much); @r ftylaft Otel, he sleeps 



144 QUANTITATIVE PRONOUNS. [§ 66. 

much. A distinction is thus drawn between Diet, much, used adverbially, 
and vkle$, used substantively, and denoting many things (see Obs. 2) ; 
as, (Sr leritt t)ie{, abet m#t t?icle$, he learns much, but not many things** 
2Benige*>, however, is not used in a similar sense of a few things. Qin 
2Deni$C$ denotes something small in quantity, also a trifle, and must be 
distinguished from ettl W enig, a little, whieh is used both as a partitive and 
as an adverb, and is indeclinable even in the article ; as, 2Ba$ t$ 3(W? n 
Cjefcett fann, i\t nur Cin 2Bemge$, what lean afford you is but a small 
quantity * ,- ©ifc mir cin wenig bauon, giwe ???*? a little of it; mit eirt (not 
einem) wentg 2Dein, wi/A a little wine; Wavtc ein roenig, wait a little. 

6.) Grammarians differ widely with regard to the declension of the 
comparatives mehr and wetltger. According to Adelung, these words are 
always uninflected in the nominative and accusative of both numbers, 
but in the genitive and dative they should be inflected like adjectives ; 
in which cases, he adds, mefyt takes the form mdjrer; as, Genitive (masc. 

and neut.) me&reren, ttienigeren, (fem.) me&rever, wenigerer; Dative 

(masc. and neut.) melWf m, W entgerem, &c Other grammarians assert, 
that these comparatives should be declined through all cases like adjec- 
tives; namely, Nom. mehrer, mehre, mefcre*; wenigerer, e, eg; Gen. 
mcfyten, &c. Nevertheless it may be said, that the more common usage, 
especially in colloquial language, is to leave mehr and if entger unin- 
flected, and to employ the form mehrer as a distinct word denoting 
several $. — See ttK&rere at the beginning of this section, and note (f), - 
page ill. 

Obs. 2. The quantitative pronouns may be used substantively — i.e. with- 
out reference to a preceding or following noun, — in the plural, to denote 
persons, and in the neuter singular, to denote things (§ 62) ; but not in the 
other genders of the singular. Except manner, many a one, which is used 
substantively also in the masculine singular ; and feitXCX, none, and jeber, 
every, which are so used only in the masculine singular. The two last, 
therefore, cannot denote things substantively ; and the English nothing is 
rendered by nid)t$ (not fcine?), and everything by a\\tx> (not jebe£). The 

following are examples : 3J?ancfoer glaubt, baf; i&m (or mancbe glauben, 

bafi t&nrll) f einev Uberf egf It fct), many a person thinks (or many think) thai 
none is superior to him (or them) ; 6etn £au5 ftC&et jebem (or alien) Cffen, 
his house is open to everybody (or all); filler 2lugen ftnb auf thtl geri#tet, 
all eyes (the eyes of all) are directed on him ; Qx fah vkk$, fcetVUnberte 
ettttgetf, linb tabelte manc^e5, he saw many things, admired some few, 

* In Lessing's tragedy of (Fmifie ©afottt, the prince, after having insinuated 
that a painter must work much, qualifies it by adding, 3d) meine mcfyt viekS 
fonbetn mei ; ein SQenigeS, nfcer mit $let§, I do not mean many (pictures), but muck 
(painting) ; a small quantity, but with care. 

\ The difference between mef;r and mcf>m is the same as that between the 
French plus and plusieurs. 



$ 66.] QUANTITATIVE PRONOUNS. 145 

and blamed many {a thing); @r glailrt, er trifle alleS; Unb bOCt» Wt\$ er 
Utcbt$, fie thinks he knows everything, and yet he knows nothing. 

Obs. 3. As referring to quantity, we may also notice here the inde- 
clinable words, genug, enough; ettt?a$, something, anything; and its 
negative, nidlft>, nothing, not anything. The first may precede or follow 
its substantive, as in English ; as, genug (§elb, or <§clb genug, money 
enough. It takes the substantive sometimes in the genitive ; as, ©efbe# 
genUg, money enough; 3$ ^ e &* r #embe genug, / have enemies 
enoitgh. — (vttt>a$ and ntcf)t$ are frequently followed by an adjective, as 
in English ; which is then always in the neuter gender, and employed 
substantively ; as, 2BtfTett @te eht>a$ 9?eil-e$ ? do you know anything new? 
CtVodS ®ro£e$, something great; riutyti (§Ute$, nothing (or not anything) 
good. (5tWfl6 is also used in the sense of some ; but only before sub- 
stantives in the singular number; as, et\va$ 2?rcb, some bread; m'lt 
CtW a? 5)tU&e, with some trouble. If used adverbially, it denotes some- 
what, a little, or rather; as, <&ti h'finbet fzcf? etttMS & offer, she finds her- 
self somewhat {a little) better. 

Obs. 4. The translation of the English words some and any being 
rather intricate* the following remarks will be found useful. If they im- 
ply a contradistinction —e.g. to much, many, or none, —they are rendered 
in the singular by CtwaS or einiger, and in the plural by eintge only ; as, 
Give me at least some money, gefren ©ic mir trenigfr ens Cttt?U$ ©elb ; Is 
there any hope left? ij* noch eintge £>Cffnung? Some people, einige 
CetltO. But if they do not imply any contradistinction, we have to con- 
sider whether one might (with little change of import,) substitute in 
English the indefinite article, or not ; in the latter case they are, 
generally, not translated in German; as, Bring me some water, cringe 

mir ^Batter; Will you have any ivine? wollen ©ie 2Bein baben? Has 

he any friends here? hat er $T0Unbe flier? * In the former case they 
are rendered by eitt; to which irgcnb may be prefixed, if we wish to 
express more strongly the indefiniteness of the substantive; as, There is 
some boy below, e$ ift em £ttabe tin ten; Has he any brother ? hat er 

etnen 25ruber? / read it in some book, ici) hafre e$ in irgenb cinem ZBudit 
gftefen; Some fool must have done that, irgenb ein 3?arr \\\\\% ba$ grtt»a» 

haben. If arc# is equivalent to <?y<?n/, or eac/t, it is generally rendered 
by jeber; as, Any of us could do that, jeber pen uti6 fonnte hCL$ t^un ; 
Fok may come at any time, ©ie fctincn g II ji'bev 3ett fommeit. Before 
substantives, not any is always rendered by foill; not a is also commonly 



* Some and any in these examples answer to the French article partitive 
(du pain, some bread; avei vou$ de feau? have you any water?); and the 
difference between them and the same words in the first three examples, *• 
analogous to that between the article a and the numeral one. 

O 



146 THE VERB. [§ 67. 



y- 



so rendered ; but before adjectives in the comparative degree, ?iot any, 
or no, is rendered by nidfrt; as, J have not any money with me, i# fcabe 

Fein Oetb 6et mtv; You do not drink any wine, @te trinfen feinen -2Betn ; 

Not a day passed without fyc, fettt Xag fetyin^ Ofjne &c.; Not any (or 
no) /orcgdT, ntCfrt lander; Not any further, ni#t Wettev. 



THE VERB. 

§ 67. The verbs may be divided into Intransitive, Transi- 
tive, Reflective, and Impersonal ,• regarding which we ob- 
serve as follows: — 

1. The intransitive (or neuter) verbs denote either a state, 
— as, " He sleeps," " He lives," — or an action which is con- 
fined to the agent, that is, which does not pass over to an- 
other object, — as, " He walks,"." He laughs." 

2. The transitive (or active) verbs denote an action which 
passes over, or is directed to, another object; as, " He beats" 
(the child), " He admires" (the statue). — A transitive action 
may be expressed in two different forms, or voices, as they 
are generally termed, — the active, and the passive ; the for- 
mer has the agent, the latter the sufferer of the action, for 
its nominative. Thus one says actively, " The man struck 
the boy," — passively, " The boy was struck by the man." 
It must, however, be observed, that there is no form of con- 
jugation exclusively active ; the form of the active voice being 
common both to transitive and to neuter verbs. Indeed, 
many verbs — such as to melt, to dry, &c. — are used in the 
same form both transitively and intransitively. It is only in 
contradistinction to the passive voice therefore, that thih 
form can be called the active voice. 

3. A transitive action becomes reflective, if the agent 
directs it to himself instead of another object; as, "He 
admires himself" " I wounded myself" In such cases, the 
action being reflective is denoted merely by the reflective 
pronoun (§ 60), the verb itself retaining its usual transitive 
import. Reflective verbs, properly so called, are such as 
are never used transitively, and yet are attended by a re- 






§ 67.] THE VERB. 147 

flective pronoun; as, to betake oneself, to- bethink oneself, 
to pique oneself, to behave oneself, to bestir oneself, to pride 
oneself, &c. This class of verbs is very numerous in Ger- 
man, though extremely limited in English. 

We consider, however, transitives attended by a reflec- 
tive pronoun, also as reflective verbs, if they become modi- 
fied in their verbal import by this attendance. Thus the 
verbs, to forget oneself, to recollect oneself, to lose oneself, to 
set oneself down, to lay oneself down, may be regarded as 
reflectives, having a different signification from the mere 
transitives, to forget, to recollect, to lose, to set down, to lay 
down (i. e. some other object). It may be said, that these verbs 
have, in the reflective form, assumed an intransitive import ; 
as is particularly obvious in the last two examples, which 
are perfectly equivalent to the neuter verbs, to sit down, to 
He down. 

Obs. 1 . Reflectives of this description, too, are in German more fre- 
quent than in English; many transitive verbs — such as tk'tfammeui, to 
assemble; fcewe^n, to move; vetmebtCH, to increase ; befmen, to extend, 
&c. &c. — assuming the reflective form when used intransitively, whilst 
the corresponding English verbs are used in the same form both transi- 
tively and intransitively ; as, (vr cerfammelte b<X§ $Clf, he assembled the 
people— -Da? 2)0lf vetfammMe fid), the people assembled ; @r frewegt 
ba» 0vab, he moves the wheel— Qa* Slab bem$t fid) V0t\ felbf?, the wheel 
moves of itself. 

4. Impersonal verbs are such as cannot be predicated of 
persons, and have, generally, the indefinite pronoun Zx>, it 
(§ 59, Obs. 3.), for their nominative. They are chiefly used 
to denote events which we cannot attribute to any definite 
subject, — such as, changes in the atmosphere, the progress 
of time, &c. ; as, " It thunders," " It freezes," " It was 
Sunday," &c. — In German, temporary sensations are like- 
wise expressed often impersonally (see § 88). 

Obs. 2. To this class we refer all verbs not admitting persons for 
their nominative, even those which admit things as such. Thus, e*> ge« 
littgt, it succeeds; t$ gefefotcfoet, it happens; C* uerbrieft mid), it vexes 
me, are impersonal verbs, — as we cannot say, ill) gelmge, icl) gefdH , &t',&c.; 
though we can say.^aS Unternefjmen gefin#t, the undertaking succeeds; 

o 2 



14S MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. [§ 68* 

2>tCJV$ UllfllUcf ^efchafi j^irern, this misfortune happened yesterday ; Qie 
©flcbe V frbric^t ttlidfr, the affair vexes me. <§.% in such cases has, per- 
haps, a definite import, and refers to the clause or infinitive following 
it. 



The accidents of verbs denoted by the conjugation are 
moods and participles % tenses, persons, and numbers. 

MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 

§ 68. There are four moods, — viz. the Indicative, Sub- 
junctive, Imperative, and Infinitive, The indicative, impe- 
rative, and infinitive, correspond very nearly to the respec- 
tive English moods, and need therefore no explanation in 
this place. Of the nature of the German subjunctive, how- 
ever, which differs in a main point from the English, we 
premise here, that it has two leading principles : — 

1st, That of reporting, or rather of giving a proposition 
merely as the substance, or object, of a preceding noun or 
verb, and as unascertained by the speaker. Thus if we say, 
" They are rich," their being rich is our own assertion, and 
therefore the verb must be in the indicative ; but if we say, 
"She maintains that they are rich," their being rich is un- 
ascertained by us, and is introduced as the mere object of 
the preceding word " maintains," and therefore requires in 
German the subjunctive mood. Thus also in the sentence, 
" The question is not, whether he will, but whether he 
can," the verbs "will" and "can" are in the subjunc- 
tive, being the object of "question;" but the verb "is," 
being the speaker's own assertion, must be in the indica- 
tive. 

2nd, That of imagining a case in opposition to reality 
(which in English also requires the subjunctive). Thus in 
the expressions, " If he were at home, he could see her," 
the first two verbs must be in the subjunctive, as the con- 

* The participles are by some grammarians, not improperly, classed with 
the infinitive ; the latter being a verbal substantive, the former a verbal adjec-w 
tive, but both being devoid of assertion or attribution. 



§ 68.] MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 149 

trary is inferred, viz. that be is not at home, and therefore 
cannot see her. 

Obs. 1. This latter point is essential in the second rule; for a hy- 
pothetical assertion of the speaker, implying uncertainty with regard to 
fact, requires the indicative. Thus in the phrases, " If he was at home 
and did not see her, he acted wrongly," " If that be true, I shall be glad," 
all the verbs must, in German, be in the indicative, as the premises of 
the conditions they contain are unascertained with regard to fact. 

From what has been said it will be perceived, that if the English 
imperfect refers to present or future time — which always implies the 
contrary fact — as, " I could do it (i. e. now or tomorrow) if I had time," 
— the corresponding verbs in German must be in the subjunctive (fount?, 
fmtte); but if referring to past time — as, " I could not do it, because I 
had no time" — the verbs must be in the indicative in German (fcttnte, 
J>atte). Further, that the verb of an hypothetical expression in the 
present tense must be in the indicative in German, as it always implies 
an uncertainty with regard to fact; as, If that be true, fyc., WittW ba$ 
wa&r ifr, &c (not fep). 

To the preceding four moods might be added the poten- 
tial mood (I can, may, must, &c. write) ; but the import 
of this mood being denoted, or rather circumscribed, en- 
tirely by auxiliary verbs (so that to understand the signifi- 
cation of the latter is to know the function of this mood), 
it has been thought rather more correct, and much more 
simple, to exclude this mood from the German conjugation, 
and to explain the import of its auxiliaries separately here- 
after.— See § 82. 



There are two participles, the participle present (lo6enb, 
praising), and participle past ($do6t, praised) ; which an- 
swer respectively to the same participles in English, — the 
former denoting action in progress ; the latter, perfect or 
finished action. 

Obs. 2. The participle past cannot be joined in German with the par- 
ticiple present of another verb ; and we cannot, therefore, form such 
compound participles as " having praised," rt being praised," " having 
been praised." — When the participle present is preceded by the particle 
jjll (which can be the case only when it is used as an adjective), it as- 
sumes a future passive signification; as will be explained hereafter in 
treating of the participle. 

o 3 



150 TENSES. [$69, 

TENSES. 
$ 69. The tenses are the same as in English; namely, 
Present (I write), Imperfect (I wrote), Perfect (I have writ- 
ten), Pluperfect (I had written), First or Simple Future. (I 
shall write), Second or Perfect Future (I shall have written). 
We retain these names, as familiar to the learner, but will 
arrange the tenses in a manner more suitable to their sig- 
nification. — In the conjugation of the verb, chiefly in the 
infinitive and indicative moods, two kinds of action are di- 
stinguished: 1st, Simple or Indefinite action, in which no 
reference is made either to its beginning, proceeding, or 
finishing — as, " to write," " he writes ;" 2dly, Complete or 
Perfect action — as, "to have written," "he has written." 
Each of these actions has, in the indicative, three tenses, 
respectively referring to the three divisions of time, viz,, 
present, past, and future ; as is exhibited in the following 
table :— 



r ndefinite action. , . Complete action. 




Present. 


(Present) 


(Perfect) 


I write. 


I have written. 




Past. 


(Imperfect) 


(Pluperfect^ 


I wrote. 


I had written. 




Future. 


(1st Future) 


(2nd Future) 


I shall write. 


1 shall have written. 



Each tense in the preceding table corresponds in time to 
the tense opposite to it ; only that in the tenses of indefi- 
nite action, the time referred to is that of the action, whilst 
in the tenses of complete action, it is that posterior to it, 
when the action has ceased *. Thus, in the phrases, " He 
wrote that letter when I came home," and " He had already 

* Even an imperative of complete action is sometimes formed by the same 
combination as the tenses in question, importing a command to cease. Thus 
the English expression " Have done ! " is equivalent to •« Cease ! " 



$ 69.] TENSES. 151 

^written that letter when I came home," the time referred 
to is in both tenses that of my coming home ; only in the 
former phrase, the coming home was contemporary, or 
nearly so, with his writing ; in the other, it was subsequent 
to the writing. The same remark applies to the expres- 
sions, " Now I see him," and " Now I have seen him ;" "In 
an hour I shall do it," and " In an hour I shall have done 
it." The tenses of complete action, indicating, in their 
primary import, that an action was finished and over at a 
certain point of time, imply by inference also that its per- 
formance took place previous to that moment; and this in- 
ference forms very frequently their principal import, espe- 
cially with the perfect tense. Thus, " They have opened 
the door," answers not only to " The door is opened," but 
also, and more frequently, to " The door has been opened:" 
the former refers more directly to the present result of a 
previous cause or action ; the latter more directly to the 
previous cause of the present result. So also the pluper- 
fect, " He had paid his debts," may answer to " His debts 
were paid," and to " His debts had been paid." It will 
be seen from these examples, that the passive voice has 
distinct expressions for referring directly to the result of an 
action, and for referring to the action as the cause of the 
result; which in the active voice cannot be distinguished. 
(Compare this with §79). — These remarks do not apply to 
all the tenses of the subjunctive; some of which correspond 
more in form than in import with their respective tenses of 
the indicative. — See § 78. 

As implying merely imaginary events, we refer to the 
subjunctive the two conditional tenses, as they are often 
called by grammarians, namely, " I should write," and " I 
should have written." Some grammarians call them futtire 
conditional tenses. That they in themselves do not imply 
future time with regard to the moment of speaking, is ob- 
vious (see also § 78) ; but they have some analogy to future 
tenses, inasmuch as they imply a sequel to a previous posi- 
tion. 



152 PERSONS AND NUMBERS. [§ 70. 

06s. The perfect, implying action performed previously to the present 
moment, may appear to coincide with the imperfect ; with which, indeed, 
it is sometimes used promiscuously in German. The difference how- 
ever is, that the perfect stands always in some relation to the moment 
of speaking, which moment is the point of view, if so we may call it, 
from which the event is perceived ; whilst in the imperfect, the moment 
of speaking is lost sight of, we are transported in mind to the time of 
the action, and see the events passing, as it were, before our eyes, for- 
getting that that time is now over. Hence, in lively narration, the 
present tense is often used instead of the imperfect, but never instead 
of the perfect. With regard to principle, therefore, the German and 
English seem to agree in the distinction of these two tenses. Yet, in 
German, only such past events as are connected with others of past 
time, are generally expressed as in English by the imperfect alone : 
thus in the phrases, " When I went out this morning, I met your friend,'* 
" My brother arrived last Friday from Paris, and set out the same day 
for Dublin," the same tenses would be used in German as in English. 
But solitary events, unconnected with others, are more frequently ex- 
pressed by the perfect than by the imperfect tense, though they took 
place at a time now entirely past. Thus, contrary to the English idiom, 
we may say in German, " [ have met your friend yesterday," " My 
brother has returned from Paris last week." This may be accounted 
for by the habit of the mind, of conceiving everything, whether in space 
or time, in connexion with other things of the same nature, and never 
as solitary or detached from all the rest. By this habit, therefore, we 
involuntarily conceive the time of a past event which we cannot con- 
nect with other past events, as contiguous to, or as connected with, the 
present, passing over the interval as a mere vacuum. 

PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 

§ 70. Each tense, both of the indicative and subjunctive, 
has two numbers and three persons, — that is, the verb 
marks by inflections, whether its nominative be in the sin- 
gular or plural, and whether it be the person speaking (/ 
or we), or the person spoken to (thou or you), or any other 
subject. According to the last three cases, the verb is said 
to be in the Jirst, second, or third person. With the ex- 
ception, therefore, of the personal pronouns, /, thou, we 9 
and you, every nominative to the verb, whether a pronoun 
(as he, she, it, they, one, who, this, somebody, &c. &c), or a 
substantive, or even a proposition, causes the verb to be in 



§ 72.] INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB. 153 

the third person ; though, for uniformity's sake, only the 
personal pronouns he and they are put in the tables of con- 
jugation as nominatives of the third person. 

THE REGULAR CONJUGATION. 
§71. There is only one conjugation of the regular verbs 
in German; which is formed partly by Inflections, and 
partly by Auxiliary verbs. We will treat first of the inflec- 
tions, then of the auxiliary verbs, after which we shall give a 
table of tire whole conjugation. 

INFLECTIONS. 
§ 72. Respecting the inflections of the regular verbs, we 
observe as follows : — 

1. The infinitive — which is always found in the Dic- 
tionary — ends in en or n (§ 73) ; which termination being 
taken away, we have the grammatical root (§ 27, Obs.) of 
the verb. Thus, the grammatical roots of the infinitives 
reben, antworten, $ittevn, are veb, antroort, fitter. 

2. The inflections of persons and numbers (§ 70) are 

these : 

1st 2nd 3rd person. 

Sing, c, eft, e or et (et only in the pres. indie). 
Plur. en, ct, en. 

3. In the present tense, the above inflections are annexed 
immediately to the grammatical root. 

4. The imperfect has the appropriate inflection ct; which, 
like the corresponding ed in English (" I worked" "I 
waited"), is annexed to the root, and the above inflections 
of persons and numbers are superadded to it. 

5. The imperative adds, in the 2nd pers. sing., generally, 
e to the root; the other persons are like the corresponding 
persons of the present tense subjunctive. We may also ob- 
serve, that in the imperative the nominative must follow the 
verb, or be entirely omitted. — See the table. 

6. The participle present annexes enb to the root: the 
participle past annexes et ; and, in verbs beginning with 
an accented syllable, it takes, moreover, the prefix £0, or 



15* 



INFLECTIONS 09 THE VERB. 



[$ 72. 



the augment, as it is generally termed by grammarians. — 
See § 7*. The following table exhibits all the parts of a 
regular verb formed by inflections ; the latter are, for a 
better survey, put in Italics. 



I 



@ct»aben *, to injure. 



Indicative. 



Sing, id) fcljabe, 
bit \~d)abest, 
er fsfyabet, 

Plur. Wit \d)aben, 

t&r fcfwM* 

- fie \d)aben, 



Present. 



I injure, 
thou injurest, 
he injures, 
we injure, 
you injure, 
they injure. 



id) fflN&ff, 
bu fdbaberf, 
er ffijabe, 
wir fdoaben, 
i&r fd)abet t 
fie f#ab<r«, 



Subjunctive. 

(it is said) 
I injure, 
thou injurest, 
he injures, 
we injure, 
you injure, 
they injure*. 



Imperfect. 



(■o 



Sing, id) fd)abete, I injured. 

bit fd)Clbetest, thou injuredst. 

er fd)&bete, he injured. 
Plur. Wiv[d)abeten, we injured. 

tfcr $d)<Xbetet, you injured. 

fie fcfyabeten, they injured. 



id) fd)abete, I injured, 
bll fdjabetesJ, thou injuredst. 
er fd)Clbete, he injured. 
Wit fd)aketen, we injured, 
ibr fd)abetet, you injured, 
fie fd)tbeten, they injured. 



Imperative. 
Sing. fd)abe (bu), ) . . ... 

(fcI?ab,(5r,or(5iet,)) in J l,re(thou > 

Plur. fd)aben Wir, let us injure. 

m¥.m>. )i„ jU re(you.) 

(fd)abe?i ©tef,) ij,.. ( 



Infinitive. 
fd^ab^, to injure. 

Participles. 

Pres. fd)abend, injuring. 
Past, geftyabet, injured. 



* The particle ju, to, is never employed in dictionaries and grammars be- 
fore the infinitive as the mere sign of this mood ; though it must precede it, 
like to in English, when governed by another word; as, Grr rotinfefyet ju fcfynben, 
he wishes to injure ; begiertg ju fybren, anxious to hear; &c. 

f These forms, referring to the second person (in agreement with the man- 
ner of address peculiar to the German — see § 59, Obs. 2.), must not be ren- 
dered in English by let him, her, or them injure : to express this sense in Ger- 
man, the nominative is placed before its verb ; in other words, the imperative 
— considering the nominative never preceding its verb as a characteristic of it 
— has no appropriate form for the third person, the present of the subjunctive 
being employed instead; as, Gfr fcfynbe, let him injure; Grin jefcer n)ue feint 
3$jftd)t f let every one do his duty ; Gr$ roerbe £i#t, let there be light. 



§ 73.] INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB. 155 

§ 73. The e immediately following the grammatical root, 
is often dropped when followed by other letters of inflec- 
tion ; concerning which omission the following rules must 
be observed : — 

1. If the last radical letter be t, b, or 11 preceded by any 
consonant but r — as, ridbten, to judge ; ttMt|>en, to rage; 
reben, to speak ; cffwn, to open; rcdfmen, to reckon — the 
omission cannot take place, and all such verbs must be in- 
flected exactly like fcljaben. 

2. On the other hand, if the last radical syllable be an 
unaccented ev, or el — as, fobertt, to ask ; fecjdn, to sail — 
that omission takes place throughout the conjugation, even 
in the infinitive : and we may add, that in those cases 
where the e of inflection is not followed by a consonant, 
the c of the last radical syllable is mostly omitted. For in- 
stance, ivanbem, to wander, is conjugated thus : — 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Present. 

i# wanbre (or wanbere). id) roan&re (or wanbere). 

bu wanbevjt. bu wanbevjr. 

er wanbcrt. er wanbre (or wanbere). 

wix wanbern. wiv roanbern. 

t&r roctnbert. i&r wanbert 

fie roanbevn. fie wanbern. 

Imperfect. 
16) rcanberte. tc& wanberte. 

btt tt?anberte|r, &c bu wanbertetr, &c 

Imperative. Participles. 

Sing, wanbre (or rcanbere). Pres. roanbernb. 

Plur. roanbert. Past, gcwanbevt- 

Thus also, fdbntetdbeltl, tojlatter — tcfe fdniietc&le, I fatter; 
bu fdbmcidbelfr, &c. 

3. But all verbs not belonging to the two preceding 
classes— as, l^offen, to hope; tttacfcen, to make; tflarnen, to 
warn; battfen, to thank, &c. — retain the c before n; but 
before t, and mostly also before fr, the omission of the e is, 
on the whole, optional, though throughout the subjunctive 



156 TH& AUGM£NT £Cr [$ 74° 

mood ii is more generally retained, and in the imperfect 
of the indicative more generally omitted. 

Thus machen, to make— Present ind. irh macbe, bu machjr or machetr, 
er macht or mathet, roir machen, &c— Imperfect ind. id? machte, bit 
machteit, er machte, wir marten, &c — or, less commonly, ich machete, 

bu macheteft, &c. — Present subj. ich madK, &U machejr, &c. — Imperfect 
subj. id) machete, bu machetefr, er machete— or, less commonly, ich 
macfm*, bu machfe|t,ev machte, &c— Part, past, yemacht or gemathet.— 

Before fr, however, the e is not omitted in verbs ending radically in a 
hissing sound (f, £, fch, 5); as, retfen, to travel; grtiften, to greet ; Wun- 

f chen, to wish; fcfcagen, to esteem ;—bu reifejr, bu rcunfcheff, &c.-^not bu 
reiPii, &c. 

Before t of inflection, the omission is frequently marked by an apo- 
strophe (' ), if the root ends in f; as, er retft, ich reiPte, &c. 

The e of the 2nd person singular of the imperative, is often Omitted 
in verbs of which the root does not end in an unaccented syllable; as, 
\>t\, fetch; wart, wait; brek turn, &c— for fcoie, wane, bre&e, &c 

§ 74-. We have already said (§ 72) that the participle past 
takes the augment (the prefix qe) only if the verb begins 
with an accented syllable; accordingly, the following verbs, 
which begin with an unaccented syllable, do not admit of 
the augment in the participle past: — 1.) All verbs begin- 
ning with one of the seven prefixes, &e, emp, ent, CV r JJC, V er, 
and fit (§ 15); as, 6efud)eu, to visit; entfc>CCfen, to discover; 

$el)orcben, to obey; tmfaufen, to sell, &c. — Part, past, hi- 
fttdbt, entbccft, ^C^Otdbt, t> erfauft, &c. 2.) All verbs of more 
than two syllables ending in iven (or iercn); as, jlubircn, to 
study ; ^mtuliren, to congratulate ; 6udbfta6tV«t, to spell; 
fcautfren, to hawk goods — Part, past, fhlbivt, (U'atltlivt, &c. 
— 3.) All the compound verbs mentioned in §17 ; as, mblt- 
legett, to refute ; imtcrtjanbeln, to negociate — Part, past, n>iber= 
lecjt, unterbanbdt. 

The augment is never placed at the beginning of verbs 
compounded with separable particles (see the compound 
verbs), but is inserted between the particle and the verb ; or 
omitted altogether, if the latter begins with an unaccented 
syllable; as, aftrcifen, to depart; a&mavfdjiven, to march away; 

atwertrauen, to intrust— Part, past, a6,9crcifet, abmavfdnrU 
atwertmuct. 



§ 75.] AUXILIARY VERBS. 157 

Obs. 1. To the above verbs may be added, prpphqeien, to prophecy ; 
faffetCH, to chastise (which, with benebeien, are the only verbs derived 
from foreign languages which do not end in iren) ; and Offettfrarett, to 
divulge or reveal. The last verb however, if referring to the Revelation, 
occurs often with the augment ; as, bte geojfenbarte .^elt^ton, the re- 
vealed religion. The participle past of benebetCtt, to bless, though the 
first syllable is unaccented, frequently has the augment. 

Obs. 2. In several verbs compounded with mif, grammarians differ 
with regard to the accentuation, and, consequently, also with regard to 
the use of the augment depending on it. Thus, the verbs mifglUtfen, 
to fail; mijj trauen, to distrust, &c, are accented by some on the first, 
by others on the second, syllable. It may, therefore, be proper to ob- 
serve, that though mif? never occurs now but as a component part of 
other words, its import, like that of mis in English, is still distinctly felt 
in the composition : and as it, generally, limits the second part of the 
compound, and forms its sole distinction from the simple word, verbs 
compounded with this particle ought, according to the nature of German 
accentuation (§ 19), to have the principal accent on their first syllable, 
and their participles past the augment *. Thus, the participle past of 
mi$billl$m, to disapprove ; mt£&raucfKn,fo abuse; mt£(etten, to mislead, 
must be grrmfbillivjet, &c— these compounds being distinguished from 
the simple verbs, btlligen, to approve ; bvau#en, to use ; and letten, to 
lead, merely by the import of the particle. The four verbs mentioned 

§ 17, viz. mififallen, to displease; mtftjanbeln, to ill-treat; mifjlinflen, 

to fail; migtatfjen, to miscarry, are the only compounds with ttltf; in 
which this particle does not constitute this sole distinction ; for fallen 
denotes to fall, — not to please, for which we say gefallfn ; ftanbfllt de- 
notes to act, — to treat is expressed by befmnbeltt; and so the other two. 
As, therefore, the first syllable of these compounds must, according to 
analogy (§ 19), be unaccented, their participles cannot, analogically, 
take the augment. Hence the form mt^anbclt, ill-used, which is not 
unsupported by good authority f, seems more correct than the form 
gemiffmnbelt, which Adelung and others adopt.— See also the Com- 
pound Verbs. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 
§ 75. The other parts of the conjugation are formed, as 
in English, by the aid of auxiliary verbs. The tenses thus 
formed are called compound tenses. The auxiliary verbs 

* It must, however, be allowed, that the German verb is adverse to all com- 
position of this kind (see the compound verbs) ; and it is probably owing to this 
circumstance, that only few verbs compounded with mig are of general usage. 

f 53on ©ntrnptm tmftyan&elt, ill-used by satrajys. — Schiller. 

P 



158 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



[§75, 



used in the German conjugation are three, — viz. ^a6en, to 
have ; fetttt, to be ; and Herbert, to become. These verbs are 
irregular ; but, like all irregular verbs, only in the uncom- 
pounded parts of their conjugation, which are therefore 
subjoined : in the formation of their compound parts they, 
as well as all other irregular verbs (§ 83), follow the same 
rules as the regular verbs (§ 76). — See the following Obs. 

.0a6eit, to have. 
Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Present. (it is said) 

Sing. i# &a6e, I have. 



Sing. t# fcafre, I have. 

&tl f>afr, thou hast. 

er bat, he has. 
Plur. ttir baben, we have. 

if)t frabet, you have. 

fie filbert, they have. 



Sing. id) fcAtte, I had. 

bu fcattefr, thou hadst. 

er (jatte, he had. 
Plur. ttur ^attt'tt, we had. 

ifjr {jattet, you had. 

fit fatten, they had. 

Imperative. 
Sing. fcaBe (bu) ) 

0>abe©r,orSie),r a ^ OM) 
Plur. fmben rr-ir, fe* ^ £«i><?. 

fiabet (i&r) ) _ 

(&atcn@re)J to ' ( * 0M) - 



bu fmbefl, ^ow £a.rf. 
er ^»a6e, he has. 
Plur. tr-ir fcaben, w^ have. 

tyX fyaktt, you have. 

fie fwben, Mey kw. 

Imperfect. (if) 

Sing, icf) ^atte, J had. 

bu (jattefr, ^om ^aeto, 

ev fcatte, he had. 

Plur. wiv fatten, w<? Afftf. 

ifjr fmtrer, #ow Aad. 

fie fatten, they had. 

Infinitive. 

fcaben fo have. 



Participles. 
Present, frabenb, having. 
Past, cjefwbt, Aac?. 



Indicative. 

Sing. i# bin, 7 a???. 

bU bijl, thou art. 

er i]r, he is. 

Plur. ttur finb, we are. 
t&r fepb, j/ow are. 

fie finb, *A«^ a?*?. 



©eon *, to be. 

Subjunctive. 
Present. (it is said) 

Sing. t$ fep, I am. 

bit fepejl or fepft, thou art. 

er fen, he is. 

Plur. irtr fepetl or ff tjtt, we are. 
i&r fep(e)b or ftpet, you are. 
fie frpen or feplt, Me^ «;<?. 



* This verb is also spelt fetn. — See § 25. 



§75.] 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



159 



Sing, id) war, I was. 
fcu waref?, thou wast. 
er war, he was. 

Plur. wir waxen, we were. 
it)f Waret, you were. 
fie Waren, they were. 



Imperfect. (if) 

Sing, ifl) Ware, I were. 

bu wareft, thou wert. 

er Ware, he were. 

Plur. Wir warett, we were. 

i&r Waret, you were. 

fie Waren, they were. 



Imperative. 



Sing, fen (bit) 



(fep 



@"or@ie),} fc ^ M >- 



Plur. fepn wir, /^ z^ fo. 



fepb (i&r) 
(ftyn ©re) 



\ be (you). 



Infinitive. 
fepn, *o fo. 

Participles. 
Present*,(fepenb,orwefenb,^'/2g.) 
Past, 0,ewefett, been. 



20etbeit, to become. 
Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Present. (it is said) 



Sing, id) werbe, I become. 

bit Wtrj?, Mom becomest 
er Wirb, ^<? becomes. 

Plur. wir werben, w<? become. 
tr)r werbet, #oa become. 

fie Werben, Mey become. 

Imperfect 

Sing, idb wurbe (or warbf), I be- 
came. 

bu wurbef! (or warbii), thou 
becamest. 

er wurbe (orwarb),^o<?c«we. 

Plur. Wtr WUrbeit, we became. 
ifjr Wlirbet, you became. 
fie WUrben, they became. 

Imperative. 
Sing. Werbe (bu) 1 become 

(werbe @r,or 6ie), J (Mom). 

Plur. werben Wir, let us become. 

werbet (ir)r) 



weroer (jpr; \ , . , 

(werben ©ie),)^ ™^ ^ 



Sing, i eft Werbe, / become. 

b\l werbeft, thou becomest. 

er werbe, fo becomes. 

Plur. Wir werben, we become. 
it)r werbet, j/om become. 
fie werben, M<?j/ become. 

(if) 
Sing, icft Wiirbe, I became. 

bu WUrbef?, Mom becamest. 

er Wiirbe, fo became. 
Plur. Wir WUrben, we became. 

i&r Witrbet, #om became. 

fie WUrben, M<?y became. 



Infinitive. 
Werben, *o become. 



Participles. 
Present, wet'benb, becoming. 
Past, geWOrben, become. 



* The form fetjenb is hardly ever used ; roefenb occurs only in the compounds 
<wroefen&, present, and n&n>efent>, absent. f See § 86, Obs. 1. 

r 2 



160 AUXILIARY VERBS. [§ lo. 

Obs. The compound tenses of the above auxiliaries are formed, as 
already observed, like those of other verbs— -namely, those of fcabetl like 
those of loben, and those of fepn and tverben like those of veifert (§ 77)*; 
consequently, a part of each auxiliary is employed in the formation of 
some of it3 own compound parts, as may be seen in the following table : — 

Past Infinitive. 

get)a6t Ijaben, to have had. gewefen fenn, to have been; getvor- 

bett fcpn, to have become. 

Indicative. 
Perfect. 
i& Hbt -\ I have -| tcfc> £itn -^ I have ^ 

bu- fxx\i i thou hast | bit btfr | gewefen, ^ lou ^ iast \ keen, 

tX t)at }>Qfyabt,he has }had. ev iff }- or he has V cr 

nurfta&en j we have I tt>irfinb I ^rotxbtn, we ^ ave become. 

&c. J &c. J &c. J &c. 






Pluperfect. 

idb d^tte -| //^ -j icb war n gewefett, ^ M y been, 

bufyatteft >§Ci>abt,thouhadst \had.bllWaxft ? or thouhadst }■ or 
&c. J &c. J &c. J geroorben, & c . J become. 

1st Future. 
i#werbe-} JsAa# -) tcfrwerbe-] fepn, I shall -\ i Ct 

b\X Wixfi >i)at:en, thouivilt \have. bU ttUrlr > or thouivilt > or' 
&c. J &c. J &c. Jit?Crben, & c . J become. 

2nd Future. 

icbtvtibe | getjabt /*/*«# | ^«w? i# werbe ) g f wefen fepn,or J*M ) kw foe», or 

&c. / l)aben, &c. Jforf. &c. i gfWOvben fepn &c. i have become. 
Thus also the subjunctive mood ; as, Perfect, t# Jjafce ge&afct, {it is 

said) I have had, bit \abc\~t gefcabt, er r)a&e gehafct, &c; id) fep geroefen, 

or geworben, (i* m said) I have been, or become, &c. — Pluperfect, icb ^atte 

gefjafrt, 0/) I had had, &c. ,• i# ware gctrefen, or gerccrben, (#■) j Aarf 

foew, or become,hc. — 1st and 2nd Futures, id) mevbe (bll werbejf) fiaben, 
or ye^abt r>aben, J shall (thou wilt) have, or have had, &c. ; i# werbe (bu 

Werbeff) fepri, or gettefen fcpn, I shall (thou wilt) be, or have been,&C; 
i&) Wtxbe werben, or gewotben fepll, I shall become, or £«y*> become, &c. — 

* There is, therefore, the less occasion for giving a complete table of all 
their compound tenses, as fynfcen and fei)ii are, in general, not used as auxi- 
liaries in those tenses, and roerfcen will be given in its whole conjugation in the 
table of the passive voice.— See § 77, 



§ 76.] AUXILIARY VERBS. 161 

1st and 2nd Conditionals, id) ttwrbe fwben, I should have, &c. ; id) rtfiirbe 
ge&abtbaben, I should have had, &c. ; icb wmbe fepn,orwerben, I should 
be, or become, &c; id) wtirbe geroefen fepn, or gewovben fe»n, / *Ao«/rf 

have been, or Aat><? become, &c. 

§ 76. With regard to the use of these verbs as auxiliaries 
in the conjugation of other verbs, we observe as follows : — 

1. .<5a6en, like to have in English, is used in the formation 
of all the parts denoting complete action ; its present and 
imperfect tenses (both in the indicative and subjunctive 
moods), and its infinitive, being added to the participle past 
of the principal verb, to form respectively the perfect and 
pluperfect tenses, and the past infinitive of the latter. 

Thus the Perfect of Icbett, to praise ; fd)abtt\, to injure; Wilnfc[jClt, 
to wish, is, tcfJ frafce gefobt, (Cjefcfrabet, gewiinfc&t) I have praised, {in- 
jured, wished), bit &afr gelobr, &c; the Pluperfect, id) fcatte gelofct, (ge* 

fc&abCt,gewiinftbt) I had praised (injured, wished), bu (jattCft gefebt,&c; 
the Past infinitive, QC I ebt (gefcbabet, $e»tfUnfc&t) fwben, to have praised 
(injured, wished) — literally praised fyc. to have *. 

2. Intransitive verbs however, which imply a change of 
place, or of state, in the subject of the verb, use the auxi- 
liary fepn exactly in the same manner as the others use 
fcaben.— See § 80. 

Thus the intransitives rtumbevn, to wander; abretfen, to depart (which 
denote change of place) j erwac&etl, to awake ; »erfclU&en, to fade (which 
denote a change of state or condition), make the Perfect, \d) bin (not 
tjabe) geroanbert (abgereifet, erwacfct, uerbliifcet), I have (literally lam) 

wandered (departed, &c.) ; the Pluperfect, id) War gCWanbcrt (abgereifet, 
&c), I had (literally I was) wandered (departed, &c.) ; the Past infini- 
tive, gcwanbert (abgereifet, erwac&t, &c) fe«n, to have (literally to be) 

wandered (departed, &c). 

Obs. 1. The English auxiliary to be is sometimes used in the same 
manner, though only with the indicative of a small number of verbs, 
and even with these have may be used. Thus, though one may say 
" He is (or was) arrived, departed, come, &c", one may also say " He 
has (or had) arrived, departed, come, &c"; and one could not say "If 
he were arrived before me," "I am glad to be arrived in time." The 
German language is very consistent on this point, and all the verbs of 

* The participle of the principal verb always precedes in such combinations 
the infinitive and participle of the auxiliary. See the table of the passive 
voice, § 77. 

P 3 



162 AUXILIARY VERBS. [§ 76. 

the above description use feptt exclusively, and that in alt the parts de- 
noting complete action. 

We may further notice here, that Uyn is ofcen used also in the passive 
voice as an auxiliary — namely, if we wish to refer more directly to the 
result of an event. — See § 79. 

3. 2£erben, as an auxiliary, has two different offices : 1 .) To 
help to form the two future and conditional tenses ; for which 
purpose its present, both indicative and subjunctive, and its 
imperfect subjunctive, are respectively added (as shall and 
will, and should and would, are in English) to the infinitive 
of the principal verb. — See the tables of conjugation, § 77. 
2.) To help to form the passive voice ; for which purpose this 
auxiliary is joined through its whole conjugation to the par- 
ticiple past of the principal verb ; and any part of it thus 
combined, forms the corresponding part of the passive 
voice. We must further observe, that, in this combination, 
the participle past of the auxiliary is wovben, not $€tt>0fben ; 
and that in the singular of its imperfect, the form ttJUtbc is 
far more usual than that of Waxb. — See the Passive, § 77. 

Obs. 2. It will be observed, that ttU'rben, having two auxiliary func- 
tions, besides its use as a principal verb in the sense of to become, must 
be rendered in English differently, according to the grammatical nature 
of the word with which it is joined — namely, if joined with an adjective, 
or a substantive (in which case it is a principal verb), it must be ren- 
dered by to become, turn, get, &c. ; if joined to a participle past, it is 
translated by to be; and if joined to an infinitive, by shall or will ; as, 
3'ch -wer&e mtibe, I become {am getting) tired ; %<i) WYbe geltebt, lam 

loved; f$$ trerbe lieben, I shall love ; 2Benn er reicb roUrbe, bann wiirbe 

fVtn $T£Unb t J>n 6?fud(Ktt, if he became rich, then his friend would come to 
see him; (*r iff ©Olbat QCWOVben, he has \ turned soldier ; @r tft getabeft 
WOrben, he has been blamed; frfC$ iWtben (or getTOfben fepn), to become 
(or to have become) tall; gead&tet Wevbett (or WOfbcn feptt), to be (or to 
have been) esteemed. 

Obs. 3. Respecting the other auxiliaries and combinations used in the 
English conjugation, we observe: 1.) There is in German no auxiliary 
corresponding to the English to do; the verb u)un, to do, to make, being 
used only as a principal verb *. The English tenses formed by aid of 

* The common people in Germany use this verb also as an auxiliary, but 
without attaching to it any emphasis. It likewise occurs as such in poetry, 



§ 77.] CONJUGATION. 163 

the auxiliary to do, must therefore be rendered in German by the same 
tenses of the principal verb; as, I do not praise, id) lobe ntcbt, (literally, 
I praise not) ; dost thou praise? \ob?)t CU ? (praisest thou?); does he 
not praise? Icbt ei' nicfrt? (praises he not?) ; I did not praise, tcb Icbte 
nicbt {I praised not) ; did they not praise? loBtCll fie tttcbt? (praised 
they not?). 2.) The participle present cannot in German be combined 
with the auxiliary to be, to denote progressive action : and such ex- 
pressions as " I am waiting," " I was waiting," " J have been waiting," 
&c. must be rendered by icb marte (I wait), t# if attete (/ waited), icfr 
£a6e yeifartet (/ have waited), he. But when this participle assumes 
the character of an adjective, denoting a permanent quality of a sub- 
stantive, and not an action in time, it may, like other adjectives, be 
joined with the verb feptt, to be (which is then a principal, not an 
auxiliary verb); as, @ie tjt recent", she is charming ; 2>tefer ©taat War 
Cinir blUfrenft, this state was once flourishing. 

. § 77. We now subjoin examples of the regular conjuga- 
tion in all its parts, both simple and compound. The transi- 
tive verb loBcn, to praise, is commonly selected for this ex- 
emplification ; but it must be observed, that the active voice 
is also the conjugation of the intransitive verbs (see § 67); 
except those denoting a change of place or state, the devia- 
tions of which (consisting merely in using the auxiliary femt 
instead of l;a6cn) will be given in a separate table, p. 168. — 
The arrangement of the tenses is according to § 69. 

The words " it is said," and "if," added, both in the fol- 
lowing and in the preceding tables, to the English transla- 
tion of the several tenses of the subjunctive, are merely to 
indicate the leading feature of each tense (see §^ 6S and 78) : 
the whole import of the subjunctive can be detailed only in 
the Syntax. 

—chiefly in comic poems. In prose, however, its auxiliary function has been, 
entirely rejected, instead of being confined to its proper use. The intention 
of the language, in regard to this auxiliary, was, it would seem, to have di- 
stinct terms for the bare attribution expressed by this verb, and the attribute 
(as expressed by the infinitive), in order to distinguish, if there be occasion, 
one or the other by emphasis, or transposition, — a practice quite congenial to 
the Teutonic languages, and in which they have a decided advantage over the 
Greek and Latin. 



•16* 



REGULAR 



Act 



Indicative. 



Indefinite Action. 



Sing, iib lobe, 
bit lobetr,* 
er fc^et,* 

Plur. w\y loben, 
ibv lobet, 
fie loben, 



I praise, 
thou praisest. 
he praises, 
we praise, 
you praise, 
they praise. 



Present. 

Sing. ten lobe, 
bu lobejr, 
er lobe, 

Plur. if ir loben, 
i&r icbet, 
fie loben, 

Imperfect. 



Subjunctive. 

(it is said) 
I praise, 
thou praisest. 
he praises* 
iv e praise. 
you praise, 
they praise. 

m 



Sing. j$ lObte,* I praised. 




Sing, id) lobete, I praised. 


bu lobtefr, thou praisedst. 


bil lobetejt, thou praisedst. 


er lObte, he praised. 


er lobete, /*<? praised. 


Plur. ttfir fObteit, we praised. 


Plur. ttf ir lObeten, we praised. 


t5r lobtet, you praised. 


\\)t (Obetet, you praised. 


fk lobten, they praised. 


flC lObeten, they praised. 


First Future. (it is said) 


Sing, rdb werbc ~) I shall "] 


Sing, tcfi rcerbe " 


J^*// ' 


bu wirft thou wilt 1 


bu tr erbefr 


i/jcw tt/j'& 


er wivb \ = he will & 


er werbe 


:= he will 


Plur. wit werben ( Jj we shall 


n 


Plur. wir werben 


we shall 


tbr werbet | you will 


ifjv tferbet 


you will 


fie rcerben J *foy will^ 




fie rrerben 


they will^ 



First Conditional. 
Sing, tch rrurbe ~) I should 



bu wurbefl 
er nuirbe 
Plur. n?ir wurben 
it)Y wiirbet 
tre wiirben . 



thou wouldst 
s£ he would 
o we should 
you would 
they would 



>1 



Sing. lobe (bu) 

(lobe (Sr,or @i v , 



Imperative. 

Plur. loben W'lYy let us praise. 
lobet (i&r) \ . , , 

+ ( praise (you). 



\ P ra ^ e (thou) 

e)» + ' 



(loben (Sie), 



* Or fofcft, fo6t, tobete. — See § 73, rule 3. 
I See note f, page 154. 



§77.] 
Voice. 



CONJUGATION. 



165 



Complete Action. 




Indicative. Subjunctive. 




Perfect. {it is said) 




Sing. id) fcafre " 


I have 




Sing. t# fwbe " 


I have 




bit baft' 


thou hast 




bu fcabef? 


thou hast 


. 


erfmt 
Plur. wix fyaben 


,£ he has ^ 
^ we have i s! 


er |»abe 
Plur. tt)tr fcaben 


i> he has 
^ we have 




ifyx fcabet 


you have J 


ifcr fcabet 


you have 


ft< 


fre fyabtn _, 


^ey /jaw J 


fie fyabtn j 


they have _, 




Pluperfect. (if) 




Sing, id) foatte " 


J had 




Sing, icft fjatte 1 J^atf 




bu fratteir 


thou hadst 




bu fcattejt . rtw hadst 




er fcatte 
Sax. wix fatten 


, i) he had 


2 


er fcatte 1 *f he had 
Plur. wir fatten ^ we £«d 


T3 


t&r fcattet 


j/om ^arf 


ft. 


ibr fcattet 


you had 


ft. 


fie fatten „ 


they had 




fie fatten „ 


they had 




Second Future. (t7 w *airf) 




Sing, id) werbe " 


I shall 




Sing, id) werbe "\ w / ^atf " 


■■'. 


bu wixft 


§ £/*om zm/£ 


"*3 
4j 


bu werbej? 5 thou wilt 


1 


| er ttnrb 


« Ae we'// 


•3 


er werbe '. j| he will 
Plur. wtr werben £ ««? */*«// 




f'luf. wix werben fe we *A«# C. ^ 


'/.: ifjrwerbct \% you will 


a 
« 


iljr w erbet 


~ ^ow wi// 


1 


fie werben J ^ */*<?y will w 


>"Si 


fie werben „ 


^<?j/ will j 




Second Conditional. 




Sing, id) wurbe 


~] ^ I should 




! 


bu roiirbef? 


S thou woiddst 


1 




er rourbe 


« he would 


vl 




Plur. wix uuirben 


£ we should ^ 




ibx rourbet 


S j/ow would 


1 




fie wurben J w they would j 




)IPLES. 




Infinitive. Partk 


esent, loben, to praise. Present, tobenb, praising. 




ist, QelCbt Ijabetl, to have praised. Past, gelCbt*, praised. 





Or {je(o&ct. — See § 73, rule 3. 



166 



REGULAR 



Passi 



Sing, id) wexbc 
bu wirt? 
er rcirb 

Plur. n? ir werben 
rtjr rrerbet 
fre rcerben 



Indefinite Action. 
Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Present. (it is said) 

Sing, id) Werbe "] I am 

bu nwbeft | ^ thou art 
er werbe I Jo he is 



>: 



I am 
thou art 
he is 



you are 
they are J 



Plur. wix rcerben 
ifcr roerbet | 
fre rcerben J 



>? 



you are 
they are' w 



Sing, id) rcurbe "] 
fcu rourbefr 
er ttuirbe I £ 

Plur. tt>ir wurben f ^ 
ir)r nwrbet ] 
fre rourben J 



Imperfect. 



/ was ~) 

/je w<w 
we were 
you ivere 
they were^ 



Sing, id) wiixbt ' 
bu rcurbejt 
er nmrbe 

Plur. wix rourben 
it)r nuirbet 
fre wiirben J 



First Future. 



(if) 

I were 
thou wert 

were 
we were 
you were 
they were 

(it is said) 



1 * 

\i he 



1 



Sing, id) werbe *) ^ I shall ' 



bu mxfi 
er wirb 



thou wilt 



[ '- Ae will 

Plur. wir rcerben f ~ we *&*# 
ir)r irerbet | s j/om «ei// 
fre werben J •* Mey ivill 



a, 



Sing, id) roerbe ") * 7^«// 
bu werbetf I J* thou wilt 
er werbe 1 |j /*e witf 

Plur. rt»ir rcerben | J w shall 



i&r tverbet 
fre werberr j 



^ you will 
<* they will , 



First Conditional. 

Sing, id) WUXbC "] •"• I should ") 
bu ttwrbef? jg *Aom wouldst | -« 

er ttuirbe ^ he would i.g 

Plur. rpir trurben j f *- we f/;oa/rf i S, 

i&r wiirbet j — j/ow wow/rf | *© 

fre rtuirben J •* they would J 



Imperative. 

Sing, werbe (bu) gelobt' ~\ be thou Plur. roerben roir gefobt, /e* 

(werbe @r, or@te, gelebt), / praised. praised. 

werbet (i&r) cjelebt, ) 6e; 
(werben^iegelcbt),/^ 



|- 



77.] 



CONJUGATION. 



167 



Voice. 



Indicative. 



Complete Action. 



-iing. i# bin 
bu fci|? 
er t|t 
ir. wir finb 
ifjr feijb 
fie finb 



-iing. id) war 
bit wareft 
war 



") ^ I have "\ 

I thou hast 
,J he has ! 
*- we have i 
~ you have 



they have J 



Perfect. 

Sing. id) fei) 

bu fepeit 
er feu 
Plur. wir ftpen 
u)r feijeb 
fie fepen 



Subjunctive. 

(it is said) 
~) ^ I have 
j jg thou hast 
I o he has 



>S 



Pluperfect. 



er 
Mur. wi 



"1 i / had "j 
J thouhadst I !? 
£ he had I | 



wtr waren 

i&r waret | ~ you had 

fie waxen J * *% £arf J 



Sing, i# ware 
bu waref? 
er ware 

Plur. wir waren 
ifjr waret 
fie waren 



+-» we have 
— you have 
435 they have _ 



Of) 
~) ^ Ihad -) 

I >* thouhadst H 



Second Future. 



(# is said) 



ing. id) werbe ~) ^ I shall ") ^j 
bu wirf? ^- ^om wilt -| 
er wirb lg he will 



'lur. wir werben 
ibr werbet 
fie werben ^ 






§ w;<? shall 
£ you will 
*Z. they will J ^ 



Sing, idb werbe 
bu werbeft 
er werbe 

Plur. wir werben 
i&r werbet 



"-7 thou wilt 
. £ he will 
g we shall 
£ you will 



•3 



fie werben J -c they will J J 



Second Conditional. 
Sing, id) wurbe ~) % /should ~) ~e 



b\l WUrbef? I ^r ^om wouldst i 

er wUrbe Lg he would I a. 

r?> 2._../j r § 



Plur. wir wiirben [ § we *£ou/rf 
ifcr wurbet | £ j/om w/ow/g? 
fie wurben J ^ *foy wow/tf 



Infinitive, 
,, -esent, getobt Werben, *o he praised. Past, gelofct WOrbett fepn, to have been 



praised. 



168 REGULAR CONJUGATION. 

Neuter Verbs with the Auxiliary fei;n. 
(See § 76, rule 2, and § 80.) 

SKdfen, to travel. 

Complete Action. 



Indicative. 






Subjunctive. 




Perfect. {it is said) 


Sing. i# bin 


7 have 




Sing, id& fe» 


I have ~) 


bu bif! 


thou hast 


*s 


bu fenejt 


fc tfAcm Aas£ j ^ 


er i|t 
Plur. wir finb 


£. Ae A«s 




erfeo 
Plur. wir fepen 


Oi /*e A«s 

f£ we Aawe 




i&r fepb 


j/ow have 


&. 


t&r fepeb 


*f ?/om Acwe 


3 


fie finb j 


they have j 




fie fepen j 


i^ej/ have j 




Pluperfect. {if) 


Sing, ici) war ") 7 Aaa* 




Sing. ic£» ware 


7 Aarf "j 


bu warefr 1 ^ ^ok hadst 


"*4 


bu wareft 


^ thou hadst j ^ 


er war 
Plur. wir waren 


•21 Ae A«d 


2 


er ware 
Plur. wir w'dnn 


01 ^ Afl!C? 




tbr waret 


f j/om 7^ac? 


&. 


i&r waret 


05 j/ow Aac? 


5» 


fie waren j 


^<?y Aac? 




fie waven H 


^<?y Aaa* 




Second Future. {it is said) 


Sing, i# werbe ") L / *Aa// ") . 


Sing, id) werbe " 


w I shall ~) . 


bu wirft 1 p, *Aom wilt \ !| 


bu werbefr 


er wirb 
Plur. wir werben 


^ Ae wz7/ 1 § 
•fzr we shall ^4s 


er werbe 
Plur. wir werben j 


^ Ae w^7/ 




i&r werbet 


£ you will 


5J 


if}V werbet | % you will 


(J 

1 


fie werben <- 


"' they will _ 


~«i 


fie werben J w they will M 


*8 


Second Conditional. 


Sing, id? Wiil'be ~) „ / should ~) . 


bu wiirbej? 1 || thou wouldst 1 ^ 


er wiirbe 1 ^ Ae wow/rf 1 1 


Plur. wirwiirben 


^rr we should 


r k 


i&r wiirbet 


|* 2/OM WOuld 


5j 




fie \ 


twrbe 


1„ 


they would 


><s 





Past Infinitive, geretfet feptt, to have travelled. 

All the other parts of the conjugation are like lobert; as, Present, i# reife 
bu reifeft, &c. ; Imperfect, icf> retfete, &c. ; Future, ify werbe reifen, &c. &c. 



§78.] 



REMARKS ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 



169 



Conjugate the following verbs for practice : f)0ffen, to hope; Wiillfl&cn, 
to wish ; frufjjtiicfen, to breakfast ; aittWOlten, to answer ; fagen, to say; 
ft'gnen, to bless ; — for more examples see §§ 73, and 80. ( 

REMARKS ON THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

§ 78. The subjunctive having two distinct offices — that of reporting, 
and that of expressing an imaginary event (§ 68), — it is susceptible of 
twelve tenses — namely, for each office six, corresponding to the six 
tenses of the indicative. It has however only eight ('§ 69) ; having no 
tenses corresponding to the imperfect and pluperfect of the indicative. 
It has moreover no appropriate future tense for imaginary events. The 
following table, in which all the tenses of the subjunctive are arranged 
according to the three divisions of time, will show this more clearly. 
We give only the 3rd person sing, of each tense, as being generally di- 
stinct in form from that of the indicative. 

Reporting. 





Present Time. 




esent tense. 

er lobe. 


imperfect tense. 

er lobete. 

Past Time. 


! st conditional tense. 

er wiirbe loben. 


perfect tense. 

a &a&e geiofct. 


pluperfect tense. 

er fjattc gelo&t. 


2nd conditional tense. 

er wiirbe gelo&t (w&er 


1st future tense. 

*r werbe loben. 


Future Time. 





2nd future tense, 

er werbe gelcbt fcaben. 

As the tenses implying imaginary events (the imperfect, the pluperfect, 
and the two conditional tenses,) correspond exactly in the two lan- 
guages (§ 68), it may, in illustration of the preceding table, be shown 
from the English, 1.) That the imperfect subjunctive, and the first con- 
ditional, are employed with reference both to present and to future time,, 
but not with reference to past time. Thus, one may say, " If I were not 
ill (i.e. now,), we should depart tomorrow;" "I should be glad (i. e. 
now,), if we departed tomorrow :" but one could not use these verbs 
in reference to past time (see also § 68, Obs. 1.). 2.) That the pluper- 
fect subjunctive answers both to the imperfect and perfect tenses of the 
indicative, but not to the pluperfect indicative; to which, indeed, there 
is no corresponding tense in the subjunctive — in other words, complete 
action in past time cannot be expressed as an imaginary event. Thus 

Q 



170 REMARKS ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE. [§ 7& 

if the sentence " It is well that the king has (now) signed the treaty; — 
that he signed it on the courier's arrival," is put into the subjunctive, 
both verbs, " has signed" and " he signed," must be expressed by the 
so called pluperfect, " had signed ;" as, " It would be well if the king 
had (now) signed the treaty ; if he had signed it when the courier ar- 
rived." But the pluperfect of the indicative, — for instance, " The king 
had already signed the treaty when the courier arrived," — cannot be 
rendered subjunctively. 

[n German, these remarks apply also to the past tense for reporting, 
viz. the perfect ,• this tense answers both to the imperfect and perfect 
of the indicative, but not to its pluperfect. And it must therefore be 
observed, that, as the English indicative is used for reporting, its im- 
perfect in such cases is translated in German by the perfect subjunctive; 
but the English pluperfect cannot be rendered by the subjunctive. Thus, 
" They say the king signed the treaty yesterday, and set out immediately 
afterwards for the army. Some say he had not yet signed it when the 
courier departed." The first phrase must be rendered, 5J?an fagt, bev 
R'oni^ hafre geitern ben 2Jertra$ unterjeicbnet, unb few yjleici) baxciuf guv 
%Xttlte a6yCreifet ; but the second phrase cannot be rendered by the plu- 
perfect subjunctive in German. Yet not unfrequently, especially in collo- 
quial language, complete action in past time, both in reporting and in 
imagining an event, is expressed by adding the participle past of the 
auxiliary to the perfect and pluperfect of the subjunctive ; as, ^tat\ frt$C 

ber Jvortiy hafre ben 2>erti'ag nodi nidjt unterjeic&net cje&abt, a!S, &c, 

literally, ihey say the king has not yet had signed the treaty when, 8fc. ; 

tSJenncrbt'ii s ^ertvag f$on untergeicbnet ge&a&t fratte, &c.,ifhe had 

had already signed the treaty, $c. ; 2&IM iX norf) JllC^t ab<}ereifet §£■■ 
YO i] t n triire, if he had not {been) yet departed. Grammarians, however, 
do not allow this phraseology to be correct *. In the passive voice of 
verbs admitting the auxiliary fe»n (§79), the pluperfect in question is 
universally expressed by putting the participle $ett>efen for \v Ovbctl ; as, 
Wtan fa§t ber $ertvay fen Qejfevn neci nicfrt untergeic&net yemUn (not 

WDOrben), it is said the treaty had not yet been signed yesterday ; ©f lift t X 
fd)On Untergcrclniet gewefen Ware,&c., if it hadbeen already signed, #c. 

We may further observe, 1 .) That the imperfect subjunctive is very fre- 
quently, even in colloquial language, employed in German for the first 
conditional, and the pluperfect for the second conditional ; as, 3$ 
ft'dtu (for nnirbe baben) $reunbe, wenn icb rcict* tvare, I should have 

friends, if J were rich ; 2Dir fcatten tbn j^elcbt (for nuirDitt lf)i\ £T[t icbt 
ftat-cn), Weitll CX t$ Oevbicnt f)dtte, we should have (literally wc had) 

* In the indicative, it is true, these combinations are objectionable as use- 
less ; but in the subjunctive they are indispensable, and not without good 
authority, and ought therefore to be adopted in the conjugation as the two 
pluperfect tenses, for the two offices of this mood. 



J 79-] 



REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE. 



171 



praised kirn, if he had deserved it *. 2.) That in reporting, the imper- 
fect is often used for the present ; and the pluperfect, for the perfect 
subjunctive ; especially when the present and perfect are not distinct 
in form from the respective indicative tenses; as, ©te fagt, YQIX fatten 
(for JMfcen) feme $mmbe, she says we have no friends ; @r bC&atiptet, 
®ie fatten (for (jaben) i&tl uevrat&en, he maintains you have betrayed 
him. From these remarks it will be seen, that the imperfect subjunc- 
tive may be substituted for the two other subjunctive tenses denoting 
present time, viz. the present and the first conditional ; and the plu- 
perfect, for the two tenses denoting past time, viz. the perfect and the 
second conditional. 

REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE. 

§ 79. If in English the present, imperfect, and first future, of the 
Passive, do not correspond with the same tenses of the Active voice, 
but with its perfect, pluperfect, and second future, — in other words, if 
those passive tenses import not indefinite, but complete action, the auxi- 
liary to be must be rendered by [con, and not by werbeil j as will appear 
from the following table : — 

Indefinite Action. Complete Action. 

Present. 
A good horse is seldom sold, This horse is sold, 



(actively, They seldom sell a good 



horse,) 

(Sin gute* Spferfc rctrb felten vex 
fauft. 

Imperfect 



(act. They have sold this horse,) 

5>iefe5 $ferb tit uerfauft. 



The horse ivas sold when I came, 

(act. They sold the horse when I 
came,) 

2)a0 $ferb wurbe uerfauft, al$ 
id) fam. 



The horse ivas {already) sold when 

I came, 
(act. They had sold the horse 

when I came,) 

2)a$ $ferb wax (fc&on) rerfaufr, 
als tch" fam. 



Future. 



The horse will be sold tomorrow, 
(act. They ivill sell the horse to- 
morrow,) 

2>a$ $fevb voixb moryen tjcrfauft 
werben. 



The horse will be sold to?norroiv, 
(act. They will have sold the 
horse tomorrow,) 

2)a£ #ferb roirb moreen tjcrfau ft 
fepn. 



The above rule may be expressed also thus : Whenever a passive 
tense in which the auxiliary to have is not used, would, if actively ex- 

* This is also the case sometimes in English ; were being sometimes used 
for would be, and had for would have. 

22 



172 REMARKS ON THE NEUTER VERBS. [§ 80. 

pressed, require that auxiliary, the English to be must be rendered in 
German by feplt, and not by werben. 

Obs. I . From the preceding table it will be seen, that the auxiliary merften refers 
merely to the action, and fe»)tr to the effect of it. It is therefore obvious that with 
such verbs as tofcen, to praise ; tabefn, to blame ; ftrtgen, to ask, &c, which leave 
r>o result after the action, and of which, consequently, all the tenses of the 
passive always answer to the respective tenses of the active voice, there can be 
no occasion for the use of |Vnn ; and we cannot therefore properly say, id} birr 
gelofct, getrtt>ett,&c. However, if an action or energy which leaves no effect after 
its ceasing, is by its nature continuous, so that the action and its effect may be 
conceived as contemporary, the passive admits indiscriminately either of these 
auxiliaries. Thus we may indifferently say, dt tft, or et xoitti, geliefct, gertcfytet, 
gefiird)tct, &c, he is loved, esteemed, feared., $c. ; 3d) roerfce, or id) 6itt, ben gcnjere 
ZaQ geplaget, I am plagued all day. 

Obs. 2. Progressive action, which in the English passive is generally expressed 
by combining the participle present with the auxiliary to be, is rendered ira 
German by the usual passive — i. e. by the participle past with mtbtn ; as, This 
house is building (or being built), MefeS £<ui$ rotrt» gebaut ; The letter was just 
finishing when I came, in 93rjef nmr&e e&en geenMgt, aU idy tarn. (Compare this 
with § 76, Obs. 3. ) 

REMARKS ON THE NEUTERS USING THE AUXILIARY @epr*. 

§ 80. As already observed § 76, rule 2, only such intransitives use the 
auxiliary fYpn in the tenses of complete action, as imply a change of the 
subject from its previous position or state— i. e. that after the action or 
energy has ceased, the subject is in a place, or condition, different from 
that in which it was before the beginning of the action or energy. Thus, 
" He has arrived,'* implies, that he was before absent, and is now here; 
and '* He has recovered," implies, that he was before ill, and is now 
well * : and therefore the corresponding verbs in German require the 
auxiliary fe»n exclusively — that is, they are conjugated like rei fen 
(page 168). — Of this description are, for instance, the following verbs t 
lanbtn, to land ; fcfrettern, to be wrecked ; WClt\bext\,to wander ; ItOfpern, 
to stumble; flettevtt, to climb; 6ege>}nen, to meet; fallen, to follow ; 

fcbfiipfen, to slip; vexwetUn, to fade; evvb'then, to blush; faulen, to 
putrify; vevwefen, to decay ; »erf#ma#ten, to pine away ; entf#lum= 

mem, to fall asleep, also to expire ; &c. &c. A great many irregular 
verbs (§ 85), too, belong to this class; as, fflhren, to drive in a carriage; 

ge&en, to go ; fTie^en, to flow ; f ommen, to come ; fc&wimmen, to swim ; 

genefen, to recover ; Wactyfen, to groiv; perffjnrmben, to disappear; 

* This explains, in a simple manner, the use of fenn with such verbs: — 
which are also in English sometimes joined with the auxiliary to be (see § 76,. 
Obs. 1.)— for, their past participles, as denoting a distinguishing mark of 
their subject, have the character of adjectives, and are therefore attributed to 
it by the same verb as common adjectives are to their nouns ; and accordingly 
we say, " He is departed, arrived, grown," as we say, " He is absent, present, 
or taller." 



§ 80.] REMARKS ON THE NEUTER VERBS. 173 

fcfrmeljen, to melt, &c. ; and the impersonal verbs, geltngen, to succeed; 
and -gef$f f}?n, to happen. It is, on the other hand, obvious, that such 
intransitives as Jtttevn, to tremble; fcl)tt>anfen, to totter; ftatlipfen, to 
stamp; tanjCII, to dance ; bltifyen, to bloom ; gluben,fo glow ; fratlfcln, 
to be sickly ; fcftttiacljten, to pine ; nt&en, to rest, &c, do not belong to 
this class, as they do not imply the subject being in a different place or 
condition at the ceasing of the action or energy, from that in which it 
was before its beginning. However, blCtbCtt, to remain; and feptt, to be 
(or rather the obsolete iKfetl, anciently also used often in the sense of 
to remain, from which the participle past gen? efen is derived), employ the 
auxiliary fe pn, though not denoting any change of place or condition \ 
perhaps from their implying that such a change had been expected. 

From the preceding remarks it will easily be observed, that intransitives 
which as simple verbs employ (;abcn, may, when compounded with pre- 
fixes or separable particles, require, by their new import, the auxiliary 
fepH. Thus, ftefren, to stand; nwtK'lL to be awake ; f#(afen, to sleep ; 
filKincn, to seem, use the auxiliary fruben, as they do not imply any 
transition : but, entJtC&eil, to arise ; emwefren, or ailfwac&en, to awake; 
finffljlafen, to fall asleep ; evfctdlicn, to appear, to come forth, require 
fepn, from their implying a change of state or place. 

But very often the same verbs may employ both fjaben and fepJI, ac- 
cording to the sense in which they are used; as, (§r l;at mit b(T ©fldlC 
Cjeetlt, he has made haste with the matter ; — @V \\X t\ad) $atife gedEt, 
he hurried home ; the last example implying locomotion of the subject, 

the first not. Thus also, @r fwt mit bftn #u£e an bie Xf)Ur gef?o£on, 

he struck against the door with his foot ; — Qai ©cfjtff tftan etnen %( ffen 
gi?frO£cn, the ship has struck on a rock. 

We observe on this head, ] .) The intransitives compounded with 
the particles fort and ail 5 employ fenn when referring to space, and 
fcaben when referring to time : in the former case, fort signifies forth, 
and a\l$, out ; in the latter, fort denotes continuation, and au$, ceasing 
for ever; as, @V tjl fovtgerttbert (or fottge&inft), he has rowed (or limped) 
away; — @r fjflt fortgerubt'rt (or fOVtge|)inft), he has continued rowing 
(or limping) ; (?r iff auSgeWfltlbevt, he has emigrated ; —& (jat au%& 
WailbiTt, he has done wandering, he will wander no more. 2.) Most 
neuter verbs denoting locomotion, and which, consequently, employ 
jVpn, use fraben when the motion is conceived as a mere energy or oc r 
cupation of the subject, without any reference to a change of place ; 
as, 3$ bin Oft nad) Conbon gerttten, / have often ridden to London; — $cb 
babe n0$ ntd)t gertttCn, / have not yet taken my ride; @r i)f Weil gf; 
Vfifet, he has travelled far ;— <5r fjat lange gCVCtfCt, he has travelled a 
long time. However, usage does not always comply with this rule, em- 
ploying often fepn with such verbs even when not referring directly to 
locomotion. 3.) We need hardly add, that neuter verbs requiring fe pn 

S3 



174 



THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 



[§81. 



are, when used transitively, or reflectively, joined with the auxiliary 
fcafren ; as, 2>ff 2Bunbe ifr f#nell ge^eilt, the wound has quickly healed ; 
— §a$ #flairer f)at Me 2Dunbe gefmft, the plaster has healed the wound; 

(£r hr in ben #luf» gettiirjt, £«■ /<?// into the river;— dr hat fief? in ben 

^luj; gejtUfjt, he threw himself into the river. 

THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 
§ 81. This mood does not refer to the action or event 
itself, but to conditions and circumstances precedent to it, 
and which are either indispensable to the action, or influen- 
tial on it. These preliminaries, as it were, are expressed in 
German by the following seven auxiliary verbs : rormen, to 
be able ; robaen, to like, to be possible ; bitvfciT, to be allowed »• 
nutffttt, to be obliged; fallen, to be ordered; ttollen, to be 
willing, to wish -, and laffcn, to let, to cause. Their use will 
be explained in the next section ; in this we treat merely 
of their conjugation. £affcfl (imperfect lieg, participle past 
$elafTen,) follows the usual conjugation of irregular verbs 
(§ 83) ; the other six are conjugated in the following man- 
ner, peculiar to themselves : — 

Present tense indicative *. 






id) fann, 


mag, 


barf, 


muf?, 


W, 


Will, 


bit fcmnir, 


mayfr, 


barffc 


mu£t, 


fellfr, 


njiUff, 


er fann, 


mag, 


barf, 


mu£, 


foil, 


mill, 


n?tr fb'nnen, 


mbgen, 


biirfen, 


miiiTen, 


fetlen, 


won en, 


i&r fbnnet, 


mb'aet, 


biirfet, 


mu'iTet, 


fcllet, 


wollet, 


fit fb'nnen. 


mbgen. 


biirfen. 


mujfen. 


fcllen. 


trefien, 




Imperfect indicative. 






id? fount?, 


met&te, 


burfte, 


nuifjte, 


foflte, 


trcllte- 


&c. 


&c. 


&c 


&c. 


&c. 


&c. 






Infinitive. 






Pres. fbnnen 


mbgen. 


biirfen. 


miiiTen. 


foil en- 


trollen. 


Past fWto* 1 ** y° mc * 


i gebtirft 


gemujft 


gefent 


getvont> 


' \ taken. 


fcafcen. 


fcafren. 

Participle 


fcafcen. 

past. 


fyaben. 


baben. 


gefennr. gemccfu 


. 9 e bur ft. 


gemufrt. 


gefent. 


gfwclfr. 


The participle present 


as well as the imperative 


j are unusual. 



* It will be seen that the first and third persons singular of this tense hnva 
not the usual inflections f, et (just in the same manner as the corresponding 



§ 81.] THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 175 

Their subjunctive is formed regularly from their infini- 
tive, — except that the imperfect of mb$ett is mbcfrtC-, instead 
ofmcgte; as, Present, icfc fbnne, mb#e, fcitvfe, mixfjt, folic, 
wolle ; tu f bnwj?, &c— Imperfect, icb Fbnnte, mbcfete, cuitfte, 
tniifftc, follte, ttJ elite, &c. The compound tenses, too, are 
formed regularly; thus. Perfect, icb (ja&e geftmtlt, Qimod)t 9 
&c. ; Pluperfect, id) l;atte gefoimt, tfemocjjt, &c. ; Future, izb 
n?erbc foimtn, mb#en, &c. &c. 

Obs. 1. It will easily be perceived that these auxiliaries (except btfrfen 
— see note *, p. 178) are identically the same, as the English can, may, 
must y shall, will, and let; they are however not defective in German, 
having all the tenses and moods of other verbs, and are therefore of » 
far more extensive use than in English. 

Obs. 2. With regard to the conjugation of these auxiliaries, we must 
add, that the compound tenses formed by the aid of the participle past, 
particularly the perfect and pluperfect, generally use the infinitive in- 
stead of that participle, if attended, as they mostly are, by another infi- 
nitive. Thus we say, %$ fyabe nicbt femmen frinnen, or ourfen (for 

gefonnt, gebtirft), I have not been able, or allowed, to come ; 2£?nn idb 

e$ hatte tbun wolten (for gewollt), (/"JT had liked to do it; @r rcurfce fiir 
einen STOeijIcr haben gelten frinnen (for gefonnt), he might have passed 

for a master ; though if they are unattended by an infinitive we must 
say, 3$ fjafce Htrf?t gefonnt, or gebttrft, I have not been able, or allowed; 

2Benn idr> getrclft hatte, if I had Med, &c. 

This rule applies also to the verbs, fe& en, to see; fjb'ren, to hear; 
^ei§en, to bid; helfen, to help ; and sometimes also to lemen, to learn, 
and lehrcn, to teach, all of which use likewise the infinitive instead of 

English verbs he shall, mil, may, can, are without the usual inflection s) : 
further, that the whole singular of this tense has, in all the above verbs, except 
foUen, a different vowel from its plural. In these peculiarities, it may be ob- 
served, the above verbs, and the verb nnffen (see § S5), differ from all other? 
in the language. For these anomalies (which in all the Teutonic languages 
exist in most of the same verbs), Dr. J. Grimm accounts in a very ingenious- 
and satisfactory manner, by supposing that the present tense of these verbs was 
originally their imperfect, — in which tense the irregular verbs have in the first 
and third persons sing, no inflections (§ 83) ; and many of them had formerly 
different vowels in the two numbers (see § 86, Obs. 1.) ; — accordingly, id) ffltui 
originally imported, I have acquired the ability, or knowledge; id) foil, I have 
been ordered ; id) rceifj, / have learned : but that, like the Latin perfects odi 
and memini, these forms have afterwards assumed the signification of the 
present tense, and for the import of past time new imperfects, with the aid of 
the regular or more modern conjugation, were formed. Indeed, in English 
the same change has again occurred in one of the modern imperfects,— viz. 
that of the verb must, which, though now used as a present tense, was origi- 
nally the imperfect of the obsolete mot.— See note *, page 46. 



176 THE POTENTIAL MOOD. [§ 82. 

the participle past, under similar circumstances ; as, 2Dev fyat bi# ba$ 
n)un bei£en (for gefoetfien), who has bidden you do that; 3$ fmbe fie 

Fommen fj'drcn (for £C()drt), / have heard her come, &c. — It may also 
be noticed here, that all these verbs, as well as the above auxiliaries, 
govern other verbs in the infinitive without admitting Jll, to, the usual 
sign of the infinitive. 

§ 82. With regard to the office or import of these verbs, 
we observe as follows: — In our actions, we depend either 
only on our own will and power, or on external circum- 
stances. If, therefore, we consider the foregoing verbs in 
this point of view, we shall find that three of them, in their 
most common use, refer to a free agent, three to a dependent 
agent, and one, namely lafjen, refers not to the agent of the 
action expressed by the attendant infinitive, but to the per- 
son under whose controul that agent is. These verbs — laffert 
excepted — further imply different degrees of influence in 
promoting the action, — namely, Power, or absence of all 
hindrance (external or internal) ; Motive or inducement 
(as by desire, duty, &c.) ; and Determination. The whole 
of these auxiliaries may therefore be arranged in the follow- 
ing manner : — 

3. Controlling Agency. 



\fy\bftt, I allow ; also 
/ cause. 



I . Free Agency. 2. Controlled Agency. 

Power. 
i# fa 11 11, lean, I i# barf, I am allowed, I 
am able. may. 

Motive, 
icfr niAfl, I like. id) fell, I am desired, or 

ordered ; I am (to do). 

Determination. 
t# WiH, / will. id) nut£, J must, 1 am 

obliged. 

In explanation of the preceding table we add the follow- 
ing remarks : — 

1.) Caffen, in the import to allow, is the active verb of biirfYll, to be 
allowed; and, in the import to cause, is the active verb of mijffen, to be 
obliged. 2.) @0((et1 and miifTcil both denote obligation, or duty, with 
the difference, that muffon implies that the obligation is adequate to 



§ 82.] THE POTENTIAL MOOD. ] 77 

enforce the action, which fcHett generally does not imply (see however 
Obs. 1, page 179). 3.) From the following detail it will be observed, that 
fb'ltnen and mdgcn are used also for denoting liberty, and thus coincide 
with burfen. But from negative sentences, which generally best show the 
peculiar import of a verb, it may be seen, that their proper signification 
is that given in the table; id) fann tttcfct always denotes I cannot, and 
i# mag ntcfrt, I do not like, but never / may not. The import of liberty 
they assumed by inference; for ability (the present import of fdnnen., 
and the former import of mdgen *), in its full extent, excludes all ex- 
trinsic impediment. 

The following is a more detailed account of the use and 
import of these auxiliaries : — 

fdnnen, 1.) To be able, to have the power or capacity ; as,(§r fann (§ 

nictn auf&eben, he cannot lift it up ; gd) fann, unb wilt ihm frelfen, i" 

can and will help him. 2.) May, as well in the sense of possibility as in 
that of liberty ; as, (5$ fann tt>a()r fetm, it may be true; (gte fdnnen f£ 
fcehalten, you may keep it; (§x fann fagen, was er Will, he may (or let 
him) say what he pleases. 3.) It is employed sometimes — as it once 
was generally * — in the sense of knowledge, but chiefly such as is ac- 
quired by dint of practice, — in which case, however, it cannot be con- 
sidered as an auxiliary f ; as, @r fann tfiele ©pradfren, he knows many 
languages; fdnnen <3te 3C Vf Ccftion? do you know your lesson? 

20id#en, 1.) To like, to have an inclination; as, £(# mag b(l$ Jltdbt 
thtttt, / do not like to do that; 3'cfc md#te i&lt Utytl, I should like to see 
him ; @ie mocbte tf)n nicfjt beletbigen, she did not like to offend him ; 9vuf»fl 

mag icb eucb erfcbetnen, ru(ng geben fehen, I like (wish) to see yon, in 

coming and going, composed. Hence it is often used optatively, like may 
in English • as, 0, baf? H waftr fepn mdfjtte ! Oh, that it might be 
true! !3)a£ mdge (or WOlle) bei* ^tmmel PerfjUten ! may Heaven prevent 
that / Thus also in dependent clauses of which the leading verb denotes 
a desire, wish, or fear ; as, @r wiinfdne (or ftird?tete), baf? e$ regnen 

mdd)te, he wished (or feared) that it might rain ; 3$ fagte t&ttt, ba$ (V 
E»alb fommen mdci)te, I told him that he should come soon, — which implies 
a mere wish of the speaker, and is therefore more polite than folltt% 
which would imply a kind of order. 2.) Like f'dnncn it often answers 
to the English may, both in the sense of liberty and of possibility ; as, 

<Sie mdgen ba$ fiifjn thun, you may boldly do that; @r mag nun fe&en 

* Gormen was formerly more commonly used in the sense of knowledge, 
and tnbgen in that of power and ability ; whence the derivatives SO?nd)t, might ; 
mncfyttg, mighty ; and uermogen, to be able. This import of mogcn is now nearly 
obsolete, though in the sense of liberty (the inferential import of ability, if the 
above supposition be correct,) it is yet frequently used. 

\ Some grammarians suppose that Fbnnen in such expressions implies ability , 
and that an infinitive is understood. 



178 THE POTENTIAL MOOD. [§ 82. 

Wie er altetn fortfommt, he may now shift for himself; (ate m'ogen wefjl 
3?ec^t Cabell, you may be right; @r may fvanf fepn, ^e way fo itf. 

3BolIen, 1.) 77) be willing, to have the will or intention, to offer or wo«* 
(to ao) or be going (to do); as, @r Will e* mir ItictJt fagen, he will not 
tell it me ; @r WO lite fie fd&lflgen, aber &c, &e offeree? to strike her, but 
$c. ; @ie WOllten eben flilfffe&eit, they were just going to rise. When 
applied to inanimate things, it is often rendered by to threaten; as, Qai 
£)3U» Will etnfallen, the house threatens to fall in. 2.) To pretend ; as, 
(*r Will e$ felbft gefe&en &a6eit, he pretends to have seen it himself; 
©ie WOllett alle? be|]er Wiffen, they pretend to know everything better. 

Stiffen, 1.) To be permitted, often expressed in English by may; to 
dare, if equivalent to see, or care for, no moral objection ; as, Qr fcarf 
fettten <&e\\\\x'mU\\,he is not allowed to drink ivine; 2>atf tdfe> ba^ t^Utl ? 
way / <to that ? 9?ein, btl barfft tticfrt, wo, to< was/ wo^ (art not allowed); 
SBit Mir fen @te k» fflgen ? Aow dare you say so ? 2.) To need *, to have 
occasion ; as, (St* barf fid) ntcfrt fiircbtCil, £e has no occasion (he needs not) 

to be afraid; 2Benn <sie etwas frraucben, fo'biirfen @ie e$ nur fajjen, jf 

j/ou want anything, you need only mention it. 

*5cllen, 1.) To be ordered or requested, to be (to do). In the present 
tense it also denotes shall, and in the imperfect, should or ought (see 
Obs. 5); as, @te follen JU S&VeOI 2?ater fommen, j/ow are requested to 

come to your father ; @r fclite frei ihr fpeifen, aber er wollre ni#t, he 

was (or sAe wanted hi?7i) to dine ivith her, but he would not ; ©Oil \ti) e$ 

thun, ober nitbt? shall 1 (ami to) do it, or not? 2>u fcllft nifbt ffehien, 

thou shalt not steal; @ie follteil ba$ tlicf t thltn, j/ow ought (reason bids 
you) not to do that. When applied to inanimate objects, it must be ren- 
dered by to be intended; as, 2)ie @efe#e fallen ben 2>iirger fdnigen, the 
laws are intended to protect the citizen. In this import it occurs often in 
questions without being followed by an infinitive, which, properly speak- 
ing, is expected in the answer; as, 2B0gU fell ba$ (Selb ? for what pur- 
pose is this money intended f Sometimes it is used optatively, and then 
often rendered by may ; as, Qu felll? lefcett, long life to you,— literally, 
thou art wished to live ; 2)afiir foil mid? ber $immel fcewaforen ! from that 

may Heaven preserve me ! 2.) To be said, people will have it f ; as,(Jr ftll 

fe&r reici) fepn, he is said to be very rich ; SBas, er fell ba» getfcan haben ! 

whft, (do they say,) he has done that ! 3.) To be doomed, decreed (by fate) ; 



* This was the original import of bi'trfen (whence the derivative fcebiirfen, to 
be in want of) ; in which sense it answers to the Anglo-Saxon thurfan (present 
to thearf). The verb answering to the English dare, Anglo-Saxon duran, 
was in Old German turnn (present id) tnr, imperfect id) torfr), which has be- 
come obsolete, and biirfen has partly assumed its import. 

*f- This English phrase, in which a mere report is expressed by words de- 
noting desire, illustrates sufficiently this figurative import of foUen ; for what 
people often maintain, they appear to desire. 



§ 82.] THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 179 

as, 3'cfo foil linyliitf'lid? ftpn, I am doomed to be unhappy; 2>ie 3^'t 

feiner (grlb'fung war nedrniftt gefommen, er foilte nocb larger leiben, 

the time of his delivery had not yet come, he was to suffer still longer. — 
The imperfect fofltC is sometimes used conditionally in the sense if it 
were to happen ; as,,6otlte CV flerbctl, fo Wiixbc id) UnylUiflicfr fcpil, 
should he die, I should be unhappy ; %0\\% H 1'egnCtt folltC, fb &c, in 
case it should rain, then §c. 4.) In the second and third persons it 
sometimes implies a future event, but only as the effect of the speaker's 
present determination or feeling ; — by which it differs from the simple 
future — see Obs. 5. It is in this sense frequently rendered in English by 
shall ; as, Qx foil C» BcrCUCn, he shall (I will make him) repent it ; @$ 
foil gefc&e&en, it shall be done ; 2>.u folltt fiexb?n,thou shall die ; (Jrr fell 
mtr Wtllfommcn fettlt, he will be {I will make him) welcome ; §a£ foil 
mtcf; ttJUtlbCrn, that will surprise me (implying a present inclination to 
believe the contrary); (gte folU'n 3?e#t I)aben, you are right (i.e. I 
allow you to be right, — I will not dispute with you). 

Obs. 1. In its 3rd and 4th imports follCIl implies an obligation ade- 
quate to produce the event; yet it differs from muffin by its referring 
to the cause of the obligation, whilst the latter auxiliary refers to the 
effect of it. Hence we find it in this import connected with the infini- 
tive of mtffTcn; as, Qx fell fdjOll miiffett (Lessing), he shall be compelled 
to do it, — i. e. ive vnll compel him to do it. 

vKUtJen, to be obliged, mostly expressed in English by must ; as, SS$\x 

mUtlen cille einmal trerfcen, we must all one day die ; 3'cb wiirbe H nicbt 

tf)un, lt?eiin id) nicflt IttUfjte, 1 should not do it, if I were not obliged. 

Oaffen imports both to cause and to suffer or allow an action ; also to 
let ; as, @r liefj feine JJfevbe uerfflllfeit, he caused his horses to be sold ; 
5$ Itefj ttliv bil$ $aav ffBneiben, / had my hair cut — I caused my hair 
to be cut ; @r lie£ tin£ tijlin, nW$ tt?tr WOlltcn, he allowed us to do what 
we liked; fiaffett ^ie it}t\ QCfjen, let him go. Ca)Ten is also used as a 
principal verb, denoting to leave, to part with; as, Ccijfcn ®ie mtr bai 
$UCt>, let me have that book ; 200 lietjtn ^SiC S^reil 2)mbev? where did 
you leave your brother ? 

Obs. 2. It will be seen from the above examples, that the infinitive 
governed by lavfen is used sometimes in a passive signification ; and in- 
deed it can often be decided only from the context, in what sense it 
must be taken. Thus, ($x liefj t&n tctru>]en, may signify both he allowed 
(or caused) him to cheat, or he allowed (or caused) him to be cheated* 
However, if it is used reflectively, the infinitive has always a passive 
import; and, if the nominative be not a person, fi'cl) \a\Ttn is invariably 
rendered by can ; as, @» la£t fid) li\d)t lail^non, it cannot be denied; 2)a- 
$eflen la'frjt fid) ni#t0 \il?,?n, nothing can be said against that; Die 6a#C 



180 THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 

la'fjt fid) ttun ntc!)t mi$X anbet'n, the thing {affair) can now no more be 
changed. 

Obs. 3. The above auxiliaries are often used without an infinitive, if 
the latter is easily supplied by the mind; as, 3>er 9J?enfc& fann atle$ , 
(supply tfmn), Wa$ ZX ernirlici) wiU, man can do (or bring about) any- 
thing he is bent upon; 3d) mag feinen SBcin (supply trinfen), I do not 
like (to drink) wine. This omission of the infinitive is more frequent 
after adverbs implying motion ; as, ^frf) I11U§ fort, I must [be] of; Wo- 

fcin wollen ©ie? whither do you want [to go] ? 3d) fann nicbt welter, / 

can, [go] no further ; @r lief mid) md)t Wey, he did not allow me [to go] 
away. 

Obs. 4. The following remarks with regard to the rendering of the 
English auxiliary may into German, will be found useful: — 1.) If may 
denotes ability — that is, if it is equivalent to can — it must be translated 
by frinncn only ; as, / might {could), if 1 liked, id) fbnnte (not mbcfete), 

wenn id? wcilte -, One may learn this in a week, man fann ba$ in einer 

^OCfye lemen. 2.) If implying uncertainly, or possibility for aught we 
know, it may be rendered indifferently by frinnen or mb'yen; as, It 
may be true, t§ fann (or may}) WafyX fepn ; He may be mistaken, er m<X% 

(or fann) fid) irren; They may be ill, fie frinnen (or mbgen) franf 
fepn. In some phrases of this kind, however, mbgen is more usual — 
especially when relating to a pronoun or adverb compounded with 
ever (as whoever, whatever, whenever, &c.) ; as, Whoever you may be, 

wex ©ie avid) fepn tnb'gen; Whatever you may say, wa$ ©ie aiic!) fa$m 
mbyjen. 3.) It is rendered by mbyen only, when it implies a wish (for 
examples see the 1st import of mbcjen, page 177.). 4.) When implying 
having reason, permission, or liberty, it may be rendered indifferently by 
mbgen, fbnnen, or biirfen ; as, You may think yourself happy that fyc, Sic 
mbgen— frinnen, or biirfen— fid) gliicflirjj fd)a$en, baf? &c; He may do 
what he likes, er mag— fann, or barf— t&Un, Wat er Will. However, as 
bUrfen implies dependence, and mbyjett and frinnen independence, in asking 
leave the former is more generally used ; but in granting it, it is more 
polite to use one of the other two ; as, May I take that? barf idl ba$ 

nebmen? You may take that, ©ie mbyjen— or frinnen— bat nc&men. From 

the preceding remarks it will appear that may can always be rendered by 
mbgen, except when denoting ability, in which case it is rendered by 
fbnnen ^ or in asking leave, where it is generally rendered by biirfen. 

Obs. 5. From what has been said in this section, it will be seen, that 
if shall implies a duty, or request, and will volition — in other words, if 
they are auxiliaries of the potential mood, refening to the present in- 
ducement, or cause of the action, and not merely to its future occur- 
rence, — shall is rendered by follen, and will by ttJOllen; but if they are auxi- 
liaries of the future tense, implying merely that the action will happen, 



§ 83.] IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. 181 

without any reference to the present motive of it, they must be rendered 
by iverben ; as, They shall suffer for it (implying the present determina- 
tion of the speaker;, fie fallen bafiir feiben ; We shall suffer for it, xcix 
Werben bafiir Libert ; He will (i. e. now) not do it, but he will (i. e. one 

day) repent it^x trill e$ ntcfct tfjun,afcer ertrirb e* fcereuen ; I will help 
you, id) will 3*(wen fjelfen; / shall help you, id) rcerbe S&nen oelfen ,• 

Shall I (i. e. do you wish me to) help you? foil \&) 3&nen fcetfen ? The 
unlucky mistake of the man who fell into the water, " I will be drowned, 
nobody shall save me," must, to convey the same idea, be rendered by, 
3$ will ertrinfen, niemanb foil mid) rotten. The transposition of these 
auxiliaries, namely, $# foil ertrinfen, niemanb mill mid) retten, would 

still leave them in the potential mood, and denote, / am doomed to be 
drowned, nobody wishes (or offers) to save me. The mere future tense 

must be, 3$ werbe ertrinfen, niemanb roirb mid) retten. 

The same remarks apply to the imperfect of these auxiliaries (should 
and would)— namely, as an auxiliary of the potential mood, shoidd is 
rendered by follte, and would by WOllte (or m'ocfrte); but if they are 
purely conditional, denoting the certain consequence of hypothetical 
premises, or if they import mere futurity to a leading verb, they are 
rendered by trtirbe ; as, You shoidd repent it (i. e. you ought to repent it ; 
or also, / loouldmdke you repent it), @te fcllten e$ freretien ; — You would 

repent it, if you did it, @ie rourben e£ bereuen, voenn Sie e$ tba'ten ; He 

would soon recover, if he would but live temperately, er roiirbe fcalb gene= 

fen, roenn er nur ma§ta, le&en wollte,- I would not do it, even if I could, 
id) wollte (or mb'#te)e3nt#ttDun, fei&ftwenn id) fo'nnte; I knew that 
it would rain, id) roufte, ba$ c$ regnen rou'rbe. 

Obs. 6. When the English infinitive is attended by an interrogative 
pronoun or adverb, we must add in German the present, or imperfect, 
tense of follen, mufien, or fdnnen, to the infinitive ; as, Tell me which 

to choose, fagen @ie mir, roel#e$ id) roa&len foil; I do not know how to 
help him, id) weif ni#t, rote id) ipm fcelfen fann,- He told her what to 
do, er fayte t&r, wa$ fre tpun mu£te (or follte). 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. 

§ 83. The irregular verbs deviate from the regular con- 
jugation, chiefly in the imperfect and participle past ; but 
several also in the singular of the present tense indicative 
and of the imperative. The whole of them, amounting to 
about 190, will be given in an alphabetical list (§ 85), with 
the irregular forms of each verb ; previously, however, we 
have to state the following general rules concerning the 
irregular conjugation :-*- 



182 TRREGULAR CONJUGATION. [§ 83. 

1. The present is formed regularly from the infinitive. 
In the subjunctive, this rule is without any exception ; in 
the indicative, however, we have to except, besides the 
auxiliaries (§§ 75 and 81), and ftufjen (see List), most irregu- 
lar verbs having a or e for their radical vowel (i.e. the vowel 
of the penultimate syllable of the infinitive), a being changed 
into a in the second and third persons singular, and e into 
i or te in those persons ; as, $ra6en, to dig — bit QX'tihtt, Ct 
#m6t; l;elfen, to help— hi Ijtlffr, er i)ilft; nteffen, to measure 
— bu nufleft er mtgt (i. e. mi\Jt — see § 24) ; jMjlen, to steal 
—bu fttcWft er |?iel;lt. 

However, the verbs erfdpallen, fcfraffen, fretregen, genefen, f>e6en, 

ttteffeil, pflegetl, fd&ercit, WCben, as well as all those that have in the 
first person of the imperfect a consonant more than in the root— that 
is, all the verbs mentioned in the second remark of 06s. 2., and ge&en 
and f?ef)en — follow the general rule, leaving the radical vowel unchanged 
in the second and third persons. 

Obs. 1. The verbs which have 'te for their radical vowel, changed it 
formerly into eu in the above cases, as well as in the second pers. sing. 
of the imperative ; thus, fctegetl, to bend — btl beugff, er beUyt; impera- 
tive, freug {bend thou)', frtefljen, to creep— bU freu#ft, &c; which 
forms, though still occurring in poetry, are obsolete, and we say now, 
bu fctegfr, frtecfrir, &c 

2. The imperfect indicative is formed, not as in the regu- 
lar verbs by the inflection et, but by changing the radical 
vowel into a, t, te, 0, or u. The personal inflections are the 
same as in the regular verbs (§ 70), except that c is omitted 
in the first and third persons singular — that is, the imperfect 
given of each verb in the List (§ 85) is used in these persons 
without any addition. This, however, does not apply to the 
imperfect subjunctive, which takes this e as in the regular 
verbs. — In other respects this imperfect differs from that 
of the indicative merely by the vowel inflection, that is, a, 
C, U of the imperfect indicative become a, b, it ; whilst i 
and ie remain unaltered; as, cu'afccn, to dig; Friecfren, to 
creep — imperf. ind. id) £Vlt6, id) hod) (not $va&te, frtecfrte)— 
imperf. subj. id) QXiibt, fvocfce. — See also the table of conju- 
gation in the next page. 

3. The participle past takes the inflection en instead of 



§S3.] 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. 



183 



Ct; in many verbs the radical vowel is retained; but, more 
generally, it is changed into t, ie, 0, or U ; as, flegfCtBetlj 
dug ; geftocfren, crept. — See the table below. Exceptions 
to this and the preceding rules will be found in the next 
Observation. 

The participle present is always regular. 

4. The imperative is regular, except that the second 
pers. sing, changes the radical vowel into i or ie, whenever 
the same change takes place in the present, according to 
the first rule ; in which case the e of inflection is omitted. 
The radical a, however, remains always unaltered ; as, lie£, 
read {thou) ; $fa6e, dig [thou], 

5. The compound tenses, (and consequently also the 
whole of the passive,) are always formed regularly; that is, 
the infinitive, and participle past, of an irregular verb, are 
compounded with the several auxiliaries according to the 
rules given at § 76. 

From the preceding rules it will be seen, that, -generally, 
we need only to know the infinitive, imperfect, and parti- 
ciple past, of an irregular verb, in order to form its whole 
conjugation. Thus the verbs, 

fcbvetben, to write, imp. fc|me6, part, past gefcfmefcen, 
lefen, to read, imp, \a$, part, past #elefen, 
are conjugated in the following manner : — 





Indicative. 






Subjunctive. 








Present. 






Sing. 


id) fcfrreibe, 


lefe. 




Sing. 


id) fciiveibe, 


lefe. 




bu f#ret&ej?, 


lie.feff. 






bu fcbreibef?, 


lefe)?. 




ex fc&rei&t, 


Itef't. 






er frftreibe, 


lefe. 


Plur. 


nnr fc&mben, 


lefeti. 




Plur. 


tvlv fdjretben, 


lefen. 




i&r fcln'etbet, 


lefet. 






i&r fc&reifret, 


lefet. 




fie fcfcreiben, 


lefen. 






fie fcfrreiben, 


lefen. 








Imperfect. 






Sing. 


id) fdmeb, 


tit. 




Sing. 


id) fcbrtebe, 


lafe. 




bu fcbviebj?, 


lafe jr. 






bu fcbriebeir, 


lafef?. 




er fc&rieb, 


\b$. 






er fcfmebe, 


lafe. 


Plur. 


wiv fdjrieben, 


lafen. 




Plur 


wit fcbrie&en, 


1 a fen. 




t&r fcbrte&et, 


lafet. 






i&r fdmebet, 


lafet. 




fie fc&rie&cn, 


la fen. 


R 


2 


fie fcfrrteben, 


lafen. 



184 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. [§83. 

Imperative. 

Sing. 2ndpers. fc&reibe, lie£, (bu) PJur. i. fcfjreiben, lefen, «?ir, 
(f#reibe,lefe,@ror(£te.) 2. fcfn-eibet, lefet, (i&r), 

(fc&reiben, lefen, £ie> 

Participle present, fcfcreibenb, lefenb. 

In the compound tenses, as already stated, there is no departure from 
the regular conjugation; as, future id) werbe fcfcreiben or lefen; bit 
if irff fcfcreiben or lefen ;— 2nd future, icfo werbe geftfmeben or gelefen 
fcaben; conditional, tcfr roiivbe fcfcreiben or lefen; perfect, idb babe ge* 

fi$rteben or gelefen, &c. Thus also with irregular verbs requiring the 
auxiliary fenn (§ so) ; as, id? bin gelaufen or gefprungen, &c, I have run, 

jumped,^.; t# War gelaufen, gefprungen, &c, I had run, jumped, $c. 

Obs. 2. Besides the auxiliary verbs (§§ 75, 81), there are several other 
irregular verbs deviating, more or less, from the preceding general rules. 
Referring the learner to the List (§ 85) for the particulars, we will here 
briefly notice them in the following remarks: — 

1. The verbs fennen,nennen,rennen,brennen,fenben,wenben,bringen, 

and benf en, though changing in their imperfect and participle past their 
radical vowel like the irregular verbs, add, nevertheless, the inflection t, 
and take in the imperfect the personal inflection e, like the regular verbs. 
The two last change, moreover, their final consonants into #. We may 
further notice here, that the first six of the verbs just mentioned form 
their imperfect subj. regularly — fennete, rennete, &c— not fanttte, 
rannte, &c 

2. With most verbs having a in the imperfect ind. and in the par- 
ticiple past, the imperfect subj., which ought to have a for its vowel 
(see rule 2, § 83), has or U; being derived from a form of the im- 
perfect indie, now obsolete. — See § 86, Obs. 1. Modern writers, how- 
ever, use in most of these verbs, if not in all, the analogous form in 
a indifferently with the anomalous form in tf or U. Thus, for instance, 
we find equal authority for the forms, fcfnvartime and fcDtt/omme, foalfe 
and fjUlfe, barge and bUrge,franbe and jtunbe, as imperfects subj. of the 
verbs fdntummen, frelfen, bergen, and ffefcen. In the Alphabetical List, 
only the anomalous forms are noticed with these verbs. 

s. The verbs fcauen, efien, fi'sen, toun, rotifen, jie&en, gefcen, and jte&en, 
present likewise some anomalies in their conjugation, for which see the 
List, § 85. As to gefren and fteben, see also p. 47. 

4. In verbs terminating radically in t, the 3rd person sing, of the pre- 
sent tense ind. drops its inflection et, if the radical vowel is therein 
changed, or inflected (see rule 1, § 83). Thus we say in the present 
tense ind. of gelten and fralten, er gilt, er fcalt, instead of gtltet,fcaltet. 

Obs. 3. The quantity ('§§ 13 and 14) of the radical vowel is, generally, 



§ 84.] VERBS DERIVED FROM IRREGULAR PRIMITIVES. 185 

retained in the changes which the verb undergoes in its conjugation. 
It must, however, be observed: — ].) The radical ie and et (see the 
3rd and 4th classes, §. 86) before an aspirate (db, f?, f), and before 
t and b, assume a short quantity in the imperfect and participle past ; 

as, ajefien, goj?, gegofTen ; fieben, fott, gefotten (see note *, p. 38) ; fciieb 
#en, fc&iicfc, gefd)(ici?en ; greifen, griff, gegriffen ; reiten, ritt, yeritten; 
leiben, litt, gelttten. Except fcteten, |>et^en, meiben, and fcbei&en, which 

retain their long vowel quantity through the whole conjugation. 2.) On 
the other hand, a short radical vowel retains its quantity in the imperfect, 
only when followed by two different consonants which are both heard 
in the pronunciation — as, finbert, helfen, fterben, &c; or by a double 
liquid (I, m, n, r)— as, riunen, fctyallen, fcfwirrimen, &c: in all other cases, 

with the sole exception of erldfcfren, the short vowel becomes long in the 

imperfect ; as,6re#en, cflen, lafien, rcafcben, fcfrajfen, treffen, erfrjjreifen, 
batfen, bitten— imperf. 6radb, &§, ttep, roufcl?, fcftuf, traf, erfcfcraf, buf, 
bat. In the verbs fommen, fallen, and fulten, also, the vowel becomes 
long in the imperfect, S.) The e of tretcn and nefjmeit assumes a short 
quantity in the change it undergoes in the present tense ind. and in the 
imperative— bu trtttfr, nimmjr, &c. ; imperat. trttt, ttimm. 

From the preceding examples it will be seen, that the single consonant 
of the infinitive following the radical vowel is doubled in those parts 
where the latter becomes short (reiten, gretfen— rttt, griff, &c), and 
that the double consonants become single in the contrary case (bitten, 
treffen — bat, traf), in conformity with the rules given at$$ 23 and 24. 
It will therefore be observed, that when the imperfect ends in if? or 
0}?, in which the vowel is always short, the final £ stands for ff (see 
§ I, Obs. 2. and § 24), and must be written so when followed by a vowel 
of inflection ; and that when the imperfect ends in aj?, in which the 
vowel is always long, the final $ is a single consonant, and remains 
therefore unchanged when followed by a vowel of inflection; as, id) 
306, bu soifeff, ttur goifen, subj. icb gone; id) rig, bu riffejt, &c;— itf) 
a$, bu ai?eft, trir a£en, subj. id) ape, &c. In imperfects ending in ief?, 
# remains, of course, unchanged, ie being always of long quantity. 

VERBS DERIVED FROM IRREGULAR PRIMITIVES. 
§ 84. Verbs derived from others by means of prefixes or 

particles,— be, emp, ent, er, #e, w, ^er, mif?, Ijimer, veil, &c. 

—drop the augment ge *> according to rule (§ 74); but in 

* The learner will observe, that by this omission, such irregular past par- 
ticiples as do not change the radical vowel, but merely take the inflection en, 
become in form like their infinitives; thus, a\'d)UiC[tn may signify to kill, or 
killed ; uenjeOen, to forgive, or forgiven ; which must be ascertained from the 
context. 

it 3 



186 VERBS DERIVED FROM IRREGULAR PRIMITIVES. [$ %%. 

other respects they are conjugated like their primitives. 
Thus, 6c(?e^en, to consist; eilttlefcen, to arise; #efrcl)en, to con- 
fess; ViX\ii\)iX\, to understand } iibtxfttfyxi, to overcome ,- nubet; 
jrefjen, to withstand, &c, are all conjugated like the irregular 
verb fMjen, to stand (imperf. fjanb, part, past (jeffallben) ; viz. 
imperf. 6 eftanb, entrant), #efranb,&c; part, past 6eftanben,enfc 
franben, ^eftanbcn, &C. 4 — in the same manner as the English 
verbs withstand, bespeak, forego, undergo, are conjugated 
like their respective primitives, stand, speak, and go. In the 
Alphabetical List therefore (§ 85), only those few verbs with 
prefixes are given, of which the primitives either are not in 
use, or have assumed the regular conjugation ; all the others 
are omitted, their conjugation being easily ascertained from 
that of their primitives. 

That the irregular verbs compounded with separable par- 
ticles (a6#el;en, to go off; aui#efKn, to go out, &c. — see the 
Compound Verbs, § 89) retain their irregular conjugation, 
requires hardly to be mentioned, as in a strict sense they 
cannot be called compounds. 

Obs. 1. The few other compounds, freatlftragen, to commission; fceratfc 
fci)lagen, to consult, deliberate; cettHllr"Ommen, to welcome; fyanbfyabw, 
to manage, execute ; hetrat&en, to marry ; berceryen, to harbour ; vexatb 
Ia)]en, to cause; WiUfafrren, to comply with, have indeed the regular 
conjugation; but these verbs are derived from the compounded sub- 
stantives, ^uftraCj, 3^atf)fct)lag. &c, and not from the verbs tra^eir, 
fcfclagen, &c 

Obs. 2. Derivative verbs formed by annexes (§ 1 2), or by changing the 
radical vowel of their primitives, have always the regular conjugation. 
Thus, frffefjl igen, to command (troops); empft'tlbeln, to be sentimental; 
frei#ern, to raise; fallen, to suckle; fallen, to fell, are conjugated re- 
gularly, and not like their primitives, bcfe&len, empftnbm, freigen, fail; 

gen, fallen. 

The two last examples belong to a class of verbs which require some 
explanation in this place, as the learner is apt to confound them with 
their primitives. They may properly be called Causative Verbs, since 
they imply, to cause an object to do the action denoted by their primitives* . 

* It is by thi>, and not merely by their being transitives, that they are 
always distinguished from their primitives ; some of these— as trtnfen, fflugen, 
&c. — being transitives too. 



j 85-3 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 187 

Thus, to fell, to lay, to raise, denote to make (a person or thing)/«//, He, 
rise. — Such verbs are mostly formed in German, just as in the preceding 
English examples, merely by changing the radical vowel of their primi- 
tives, and have therefore, according to the last rule, always the regular 
conjugation. Thus, faitgetl, to suckle; hangen*, to hang (transitively); 
fegen,*o set; fenfen, to sink (transitively) ; fcfcwemmen, to float (transi- 
tively); fprengeit, to cause to spring or burst; tranfen, to water (i. e.to 
give to drink) ; ertf atlfen f, to drown (transitively), are conjugated regu- 
larly, though derived from the irregular verbs, faugen, to suck; (jangett *, 
to hang (intransitively); {i$tX\,to sit ; jinfen, to sink (intransitively); fcbttUttl; 
men, to swim ; fprtngetl, to spring or to burst (intransitively) ; trinf en, to 
drink; evtfinfen t. to drown (intransitively). Some irregular verbs are 
used in the same form and conjugation both in a neuter and a causative 
sense; as, heifjien, to call, or be called; rei£en, to tear ; fieben, to boil ; 
biegen, to bend, &c. &c. : a few of them, however, are irregular only as 
neuter verbs; but in the causative import they assume the regular con- 
jugation, — which will be noticed in the proper places in the Alphabetical 
List. 

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

§ 85. Explanations for using this list : — 

If the present tense is left unnoticed, the whole of this tense (both 
indicative and subjunctive), and of the imperative, is formed regularly 
from the infinitive. But if the 2nd person sing, of the present indie, is 
irregular, and therefore given in the List, the 3rd pers. sing, of the same 
tense is formed from it, (unless separately mentioned,) by changing the 
inflection (jr or eft) into t — seldom into et; and if the radical vowel of 
this second person be t or ie, or etl, the 2nd pers. sing, of the imperative 
is likewise formed from it, by omitting the inflection. See the examples 
in § 83, rules I and 4, and Obs. 1. 

The imperfect subjunctive, being formed from the imperf. indie, ac- 
cording to a fixed rule {§ 83), is not noticed, except in those verbs which 
deviate from this rule. See the 2nd remark in § 83, Obs. 2, concerning 

* Jpanqen is often used intransitively, and is then conjugated irregularly (fjing, 
geljangen). But, analogously to falien and fallen, it seems more correct to use 
in the intransitive import the form (jangen, and to confine l)angen to the transi- 
tive signification, conjugating it always regularly. This distinction, of course, 
applies also to the compounded verbs; and we ought to say, nO()nngen (not at-. 
fyangen), to depend; nnfyangen, to adhere to ;— but, nnfyangen, to Jix to ; nufl)an= 
gen, to hang up. 

•j* The difference between the neuter and the transitive verb may be forcibly 
illustrated by a passage occurring at the end of Schiller's tragedy, 2)te S8n- 
fcfyroorung t>e$ fttcSfo ju ©emtrt ; where, on the conspirators, who had just drown- 
ed Fiesko, being asked where he was, one of them answers, (jrrttuufen, drowned; 
and on further inquiry, adds, (Stttcinft, wenn t>a$ fytifrfdjet: (autet, [He has been) 
drowned, if that soitnds more pretty. 



188 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



85. 



the use of the anomalous form of the imperfect subj. The infinitive and 
past participle are used in the compound tenses exactly as in the regular 
conjugation. — See page 1 84. 

The forms in brackets are obsolete, and found only in poetry. — The 
letter R. denotes that that part has also the regular form, and m. R. that 
it is mostly regular. — S. denotes subjunctive mood; refl., reflective verb ; 
and impers., impersonal verb. — When a part has two forms, the double 
form extends also to the parts derived from it. Thus, the imperfect of 
brefdKn being brafcfr or brofcft, the imperf. subj. is accordingly briifrfie 
or brbfcfK. The 2nd person sing, present tense of yebaren is marked 
gebterft- R. ; accordingly, the Srd person of this tense is et' yfbievt, or 
getavt ; and 2nd person sing, of the imperative, yebier, cr gcbare. 



Infinitive. 

bacfen, to bake, 
befeblCtl*, to command, 
befleijjen, (refl.) to apply (one- 
becjtnnen, to begin, [self), 
beifen, to bite, 
bcr>ien, to save, to conceal, 
bcritcn, to burst, 

bewfytn, to induce f, 
biCyCll, to bend, 

bieten, to bid, 
binbih, to bind, 
bitten, to beg, 
blafen, to blow, 
blCtbon, to remain, 

braten, to roast, 

bredfe^n, to break, 
brennen, to burn, 
brtnqcn, to bring, 
batttbtOn & (impers.) to seem, 
benfen, to think, 



Pres. Indie. Sing. 

2. biicfir, R. 
2. bofieMlr, 



2. biryff, 

2. birtfetr, 

3. birjtetorbirft, R. 



[2. beu tfr,] 



2. blafeff, 



2.bratir,3.bvat,m.R. 
2. brtctjft. 



es baucljt, 



Imperf. Ind. 
btlf, m. R. 
befabl ; S. bl? 
befltj;, [fbble, 
begann ; S. be* 
btj?, [y/enne, 
bar 9; S. bttrgV, 
barf or bcr|t, 

bemcy, 

&% 

bor, 

banb, 

bat, 

blte$, 

blicb, 

brief, m.R. 

bracb, 

bramue,- S.R. 

braefcte, 

baucbte, 

bacine, 



Part. past. 

t£batfen. 

benbtin. 

befliiten. 

begennen. 

viebiiTen. 

vjcbcryen. 

ejebevften. 

berccyeri. 
yebcyen. 
aebcten. 
gtbontoft. 

cjebeten. 

geblafen. 

aeblieben. 

ycbraten. 

Mtbrccben. 

yCbfannt. 

viebrarfn. 

ycbauchf. 

yebachr. 



* 5cf)(en, to fail, and verfel)(en, to miss, are verbs of a different origin, and regular. 

f If signifying to move, or to touch, it is regular. 

\ 2)unfen, which has the same import, is, according to Adelung, a distinct verb, 
and regular. Dr. Grimm, however, considers btinfen as the infinitive of the above 
verb, and conjugates it analogously to benfen ; namely, present e$ bmtt, imperf. eg 
iJiiudue, part, past gebaucfyt. This opinion seems supported by the circumstance, that 
there is no other example of an imperfect losing its inflection et without any change 
in the radical letters. We have however preferred Adelung's conjugation, as agreeing 
more with usage. £>atid)ten is used also regularly, though very rarely. 



§85.] 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



189 



Infinitive. 
bingen, to bargain, 

brefcben, to thrash, 
bringen, to urge, 
biirfen to be allowed. See § 8 1 . 
empfehfen, to recommend, 
erbietc&enf, to grow pale, 
erfUrem, to choose, 
erlb'fcben §, to go out (of fire), 
erfc&allen ||, to resound, 
erf#recfen1f,to be frightened, 
effen, to eat. 
fa&ren, to drive, 
fatten, to fall, 
fatten **, to fold, 
fangen, to catch, 
fecfcten, to fight, 
ffnben, to find, 
ffecfcten, to plait, 
fftegen, to fly, 
fliehen, to flee, 
fTie^en, to flow, 
fragen, to ask, [beasts), 

freffen, to eat (applied to 
frieren, to freeze, 
ga'&ren, to ferment, 
gefcaren, to bring forth, 
geben, to give, 
gebetben, to prosper, 
ge&en, to go, to walk, 
geltngen, to succeed (impers.), 
' gel ten, to be worth, [ness, 
genefen, to recover from ill- 



Pres. Indie* Sing. 


Imperf. Ind. 


Part. past. 




bung, R. 


gebungen *. 


2. brifefcefr, 


brafc&or&rofcfe, 


gebrofeften. 




brang, 


gebrungen. 


Like 6efe(jlen. 








erfclicfj, 


erbtic^eq. 




erfor, 


erforen. 


2. erlifcfreff, 


erlofcfc, 


erlefcfren. 




evfcfcolt, 


erfcbollen. 


2. erftfmtff?, 


erfefrraf, 


erfebrotfen. 


2. iffeft 


afr 


gegeffen. 


2. fafctf, 


fu&r, 


gefahtm 


2.fanfr, 


Pel, 


gefallen. 




R. 


ge fa l ten, R. 


2. fangff, 


fing or peng, 


gefangen. 


2. ficfeif, s. $m 


fe*t, 


gefocfrten. 




fanb, 


gefunben. 


2. ffic&fc 3. flic&t, 


Soft, 


gefjochten. 


[2. fleugtt,] 


fTog, 


geflogen. 


[2. ffeu*ff,l 


ffofc 


geflohen. 


[2.tTeufe|!,] 


flfofc 


geflcffen. 




frug, m. R. 


R. 


2. frrffeft, 


fra£, 


gefrefen. 




ftor, 


gefroren. 




go&r, 


gegohren. 


2. gebierj?, R. 


gebar, 


gefcoren. 


2. gi&fi or giebj?, 


8^, 


gegeben. 




gebieh, 


gebteben. 




gtng or gteng, 


gegangen. 




gelang, 


getungen. 


2.giltfr, 3. gitt, 


gait; S. gb'lte, 


gegclten. 




gena£, 


genefen. 



* The adjective fceMngt, qualified, conditional, must not be mistaken for the participle 
past of foebtwjen, which is bebungen. 

f The primitive 6(eid)en, to bleach, is regular. 

J This verb is nearly obsolete, with the exception of the participle past. Another 
form of this verb is errtefen, which is regular according to Adelung, but which Dr. 
Grimm considers as the infinitive of the above verb, conjugating it, erftefen, erpor, «r> 
forcn. See Note (*), p. 197. 

§ The verbs t&fd)en and <iuS(6fcf)en, to extinguish, are regular : <ms(ofd)en is some- 
times, though rarely, used intransitively, and is then conjugated like crtofdjen j— Sifty 
<1U$ meitt 2id)t, Go out my light— i. e. life, (Burger.) 

|j ©cf)n((en, to sound, is regular, except sometimes in poetry. 

<J When importing to frighten, it is regular. 

** (fntfnlten, to unfold, is entirely regular. 



190 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS* 


If 85. 


Infinitive. 


Pres. Indie. Sing. 


Imperf. Ind. 


Part. past. 


geniefjen, to enjoy, 


[2. geneugefr,] 


genof, 


genoffen. 


gefcb ef)en, to happen (impers,), 


e$ gefdnebt, 


gef^ab, 


gefc&e&en. 


gercinnen, to win, 




gewann; S.ge= 


gerconnen. 


gie£en, to pour, 


[2. geufjejr,] 


gofj, [n/dnne, 


gegetfen. 


gletcfyen, to resemble, 




gttcfr, 


geglicfcen. 


gotten * to glide, 




fitttt, 


gegiitten. 


gtimmen, to glimmer, 




glomm, R. 


geglommen. 


grafcen, to dig, 


2. grafcfr, 


grub, 


gegvafren. 


gmfen, to seize, 




Stiff. 


gegriffen. 


bafcett, to have. See § 75. 








fjalten, to hold, 


2. 6alt|t, 3. (jaft, 


fcieit, 


gefjalten. 


bang en f, to hang, 


2. fjangft 


bing or fneng, 


gefjangen. 


bauen, to hew, 




fctefr, 


gefjauen. 


|je6en, to heave, [called, 




tcb [&u&], 


ge&e&en. 


Jjetijen, to bid, to call, to be 




6ie^, 


ge&etfen. 


fcelfen, to help, 


mm, 


6arf 5 s. bwfe, 


ge&olfen. 


fetfett, to chide, 




rtff, 


geftffen. 


fennen, to know, to be ac- 




fannte; S. R. 


gefannt. 


quainted with, 








fltmmen, to climb, 




flcmm, 


geffommen. 


fftngeh, to sound, 




ffang, 


geffungem 


f net fen, to pinch, 




fntff, R. 


gefniffen, R, 


fommen, to come, 


fo'mmfr, R. 


fam, 


gefommen. 


ib'unen, to be able. See §81. 








friecben, to creep, 


[2. freuc&f?,] , 


froef>, 


gefrocbett. 


laben, to load, 


2. labfr, m. R. 


lub, 


gefaben. 


I a (Ten, to let, to leave, 


2. lajfeff, 


fief, 


geiafjen. 


faufen, to run, 


2. laufjt, m. R. 


lief, 


gelaufen. 


letbettj, to suffer, 




lift, 


gelitten. 


leiben, to lend, 




tie&, 


gelie&en. 


lefen, to read, 


2. liefefr, 


M; 


gelefen, 


liegen, to lie down, 




lag. 


gelegen. 


Jtigen, to tell a lie, 


[2. teugfr,] 


log, 


gelegen. 


ttU&fen §, to grind, 




R. 


gemafrten. 


tneiben, to shun, 




mteb, 


gemieben. 


meifen, to milk, 




moff, R. 


gemolfen,R. 


ttieffen, to measure, 


2. miffef?, 


mag, 


gemeflen. 


miffingen, to fail, 




miflang, 


mtfiungen. 


mdgen. See § 8 i. 









* SBegfeiten, to accompany, is not derived from the above verb, and is regular. 

f This verb is used only intransitively. See § 84, Obs. 2. 

$ 28cr(etbert, to make averse to, is regular. 

§ 3J?n(en or maljhn, to paint, is throughout regular. 



I 85.] 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



191 



Infinitive. 
mu|Ten,tobeobliged.See§81. 
nefymen, to take," 
nennen, to name, 

pfeifen, to whistle, [nister, 
pfTegen*, to carry on, admi- 
preifen, to praise, [fluids), 
qtieUen, to spring forth (of 

racfren, to avenge, 
ratljen, to advise, 
retfcen, to rub, 
mj?en, to tear, 
reiten f, to ride, 
rennen, to run, 
rie#en, to smell, 
ringenj, to wrestle, 
rinnen, to flow, 
rufen, to call, 
fa 1 3 en, to salt, 
fail fen, to drink (of brutes), 
{ faugen, to suck, 
fd&affen §, to create, 
fcbeiben ||, to separate, 
fd^einen, to shine, 
ftyeften, to scold, 
fcberen % to shear, 
fcfctefcen, to shove, 
f#ie£en, to shoot, 
ffrmbm, to flay, 
fc^Tafen, to sleep, 
fcfilagen, to beat, 
fcfcleicfcen, to sneak, 
fcfcletfen**, to grind, 

f#fei£en, to split, 



Pres. Iridic. Sing. 

2. ntmmir, 



2. quWlf, 

2. rat&ir, 3. rat&, 



2. fa'ufejr, m. R. 



2.f*irt|f, s. fdbtrt, 



2. f#I8ffc 
2. fCfyggfc 



Imperf. hid. 

na&m, 

nannte,R; S.R 

Pftff, 

pffog, 

prie*, 

quoH, 

R. 
rietfi, 
rfe£», 
riff, 
ritt, 

rannte,R; S.R. 
rccb, 
rang, 

rann,-S.rbnne, 
tret; 

R. 
foff, 
fog, 

fcbien, [te, 
fcfrait;S.fc&ofc 
fc&or, 

f*oft 
fcbunb, R. 

Wtef, 
ftffofl, 
fWcfe, 
fdbttff, 
ftfltfc 



genommen. 

genannt, R. 

gepfiffen. 

gepftogen. 

gepriefen. 

gequoflen. 

gerodKn, R. 

gerat&en. 

geriefren. 

gevi-HTeftv 

geritten. 

gerannt, R. 

gevocfren. 

gerungen. 

geronnen. 

9 er u fen. 

gefa^en. 

gefoffen. 

gefogen. 

fltfcbaffen. 

gefcbtefren. 

gefcjjienen. 

gefcboiten. 

gefcfroren. 

gefcfcofan. 

gefcbofjen. 

geftfmnten. 

gejtyfofen. 

gefcfclagen. 

gefc^llc&en. 

gefcfcliffen. 

gef^riffen. 



* When signifying to be in the Ivabil, or to nurse, it is regular. SBerpfTegen, Jo sustain, 
nourish, is always regular. 

f Its derivative beteiten, £o 6rai& in (o horse), which, of course, has the same conju- 
gation, must not be confounded with fcemien, to prepare, which is not derived from 
xeiten, and is regular. 

\ ilmringen, to surround, is not derived from the above verb, and is regular. 

§ So also erfdjaffen, to create; but fcfyaffen, to work, to procure, and all its derivatives, 
oetfcfyaffen, <mfd)rtffen, &c. are regular. 

|) When importing to analyse (in chemistry), it is regular. 

\ 95efd)eren, fo give, <o allot, is regular. 

** If denoting to drag, to demolish, it is regular. 



192 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



CI 85. 



Infinitive. 

fdfoliejjen, to lock, 
fcblingen, to sling, 
fcfrmaljen, to butter, 
fcfjmeif en, to fling, 
fdinieljen *, to melt, 
fcbnauben, to snort, 
ftfmetben, to cut, 
f#rauben, to screw, 
fcbretben, to write, 
fi&retat, to cry, 
fcbreiten, to stride, 

fcfWten, to rough-grind, 
fcfwaren, to fester, 
fcfwetgen, to be silent, 
fdwellen, to swell :, 
fitwimmen, to swim, 

fc&winben, to grow less, 

fc^wingen, to swing, 

fcfrtt/o'ren, to swear, 

fefien, to see, 

fenben, to send, 

fe»tt, to be. See § 75. 

freben, to boil, 

fingen, to sing, 

finfen, to sink, 

finnen, to think, 

ftgen, to sit, 

follen, to be ordered. See §81. 

fpalten, to split, 

fpeien, to spit, 

fpinnen, to spin, 

fprecfren, to speak, 

fprtefen, to sprout, 

fprtngen, to spring, 

freemen, to sting, 

flebett, to stand, 

ire&ten, to steal, 
freigen, to ascend, 



Pres. Indie. Sing. 

[2. fc&leujfefc] 



2. fc&mirseft, 



2. ffjbwiiift, 



2. fi'efjeft, 



2. fprtcbfr, 
[2. fpreuf?c|t,] 

2. fticbf, 

2. ftiehtjf, 



Imperf. Ind. 

fc&fong, 

R. 
fcfcmif, 
fcfcmotj, 
frintob, m. R. 
febnitt, 
fcfrrob, m. R. 
fcfmeb, 
fc^tie, 
fcfmtt, 

R. 
fc&wor, 
fc&wieg, 
feb troll, 
febroamm ; 
S. fcfw dm me, 
febwanb, 
febwang, 
febwor or 
fafc, [fcbnmr, 
fa nbte,R;S.R. 

fott, 
fang, 
fanf, 
fann;S.fdnne, 

R. 

fate, [ne, 

fpann;S.fpbm 

fpracb, 

faroj;, 

fprang, 

ftadfi, 

|tanb;S.frunbe, 

1ta&l;S.jrb'ble, 

tfteg, 



Part. /)05/. 

gefcblofien. 

gefrhfungen. 

gefchmalgen. 

gefebmiffen. 

gefcbmoljen. 

gefclmcben. 

gefebnitten. 

gefefrroben, R 

gefefcrteben. 

geftjmen t- 

gefcjmtten. 

gefcliroten. 

gefejworen. 

gefefcwiegen. 

geffjnrolien. 

geftfwommen 

gefc&wunben. 
gefebnmngen. 
gefdeworen. 
gefeben. 
gefanbt, R. 

gefotten. 
gefungen. 
gefunfen. 
gefennen §. 
gefeiTen. 

gefpaften. 

gefpienf. 

gefponnen. 

gefprocben. 

gefproffen. 

gefpumgen. 

gejfocben. 

geffanben. 

gefrohlen. 

gejliegen. 



* If used transitively, it ought, according to grammarians, to have the regular con- 
jugation ; but this distinction is seldom observed, except, perhaps, in the present tense, 
f Read gefdm*en, flefpben. See § 23. Rem. 2. 
J When used transitively (to make swell) it is regular. 
§ ©efinnt, minded, is a mere adjective, not a participle of the above verb. 



§85.] 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



193 



Infinitive, 


Pre*. Indie. Sing. 


Imperf. Jnd. 


Par/ 1 , pas£. 


fterben, to die, 


2. ttirfcft, 


frarbjS.ftiirbe, 


gefrorbert. 


fttebftt, to disperse suddenly, 




froe, 


gcireben. 


frinfen, to stink, 




ffarif, 


gefhinfen. 


frozen, to push, 


2. fJo£e|r, 


fttef, 


geffefjert. 


irreicfcen, to stroke, 




fMefc 


Setrridben. 


t(wn, to do, 


i. tbue, 2. t&ufr, 
3. t&ut— wtr tbun, 


t^t, 


get&an. 


tragen, to carry, 


2. tragi?, [&c. 


trug, 


getragen. 


treffen, to hit, 


2. trifffr, 


tvaf, 


getrojfetu 


treiben, to drive, 




trieb, 


getrieben. 


treten, to tread, 


2. trtttfr, 3. trttt, 


trat, 


getreten. 


triefen, to drop, 


[2. treufjf] 


troff, 


g<?troffen. 


trtnfen, to drink, 




tranf, 


getrunfen. 


trtigen, to deceive, 




trog, 


getrogen. 


uerbleicfreit, to fade. Like 


nbletcfcen. 


[biirbe, 




rerberben*, to spoil, 


2. ucrbtvbff, 


oerbav&;S.»er* 


vevboxbtn. 


t>erbrie0en,toofFend(impers.), 


[s. rerbreuft,] 


vtxbvofi, 


oerbroffen. 


uergeffen, to forget, 


2. rergtiTeir, 


uergaf?, 


oergefien. • 


uerlteren, to lose, 




t>erIor, 


oertorcn. 


wacfrfen, to grow, 


2. wa#fe|r, 


wurb* 


gewac&fen. 


Wagen, to weigh (transitively), 




wog, 


gewogen. 


wafc&en, to wash, 


2. wa'fcbelr, 


wufcfe, 


gewafeflen. 


W eben, to weave, 




[wo6,j R. 


[gewoben,]R 


wercften t, to give way, 




wt#, 


gewicben. 


weifert, to show, 




wieS, 


gewiefen. 


wenbett, to turn, 




wanbte,R;S.R. 


gewembt, R. 


werben, to sue, 


2. wirbtr, 


war6;S.wiirbe, 


geworben. 


twerben, to become. See§ 75. 








; werfen to throw, 


2. tt>tvfff, 


watf; S.wilife, 


geworfen. 


wiegen, to weigh J, 




wog, 


gercogen. 


winben, to wind, 




wanb, 


gewunben. 


wiJFen, to know, 


l. roeif?, 2. weifjt, 
s. wet£,— wit* wtf= 


wujjte, 


gewu£t. 


wollen, to wish. See $ 81. 


[fen,&c. 






getfien, to accuse, 




*ie&, 


gejie^en. 


gte&en, to draw, 


[2. $eu#fr,] 


^g, 


geaogen. 


gwingen, to force, 




jwang, 


gejwungcn. 



* If used transitively, it ought, according to grammarians, to have the regular 
jugation ; but most authors use it in the above conjugation also transitively, 
f 2Betd)en, to sqften, is regular. 
J SRJiegen, to rock, is regular. 



194? CLASSIFICATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ 86. 

Anciently the number of irregular verbs was much larger*; but a 
great many of them have in time become either obsolete or regular. 
In the latter class we must reckon the verbs fceflemmen, to afflict; 
cer&efrlen, to conceal; pemurren, to confuse; fcellen, to bark; fcinfen, 

to limp ; frecfen, to stick, and some others, which, though still enumerated 
in some German grammars among the irregular verbs, yet being now in 
all good authors conjugated regularly, have been omitted in our list. 
Of the three first-mentioned verbs we must, however, observe, that the 
irregular forms of their past participles — namely, beflOlttttien, r>evf)Ol)len, 
and oerworren — occur yet very often, but only as adjectives, not as par- 
ticiples. 

§ 86. CLASSIFICATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

As nearly all the irregular verbs admit of classification, 
founded on the change of the radical vowel in the imperfect 
and the participle past, we shall, in order to facilitate their 
study, class them accordingly. The few irregular verbs 
which cannot be referred to any of the classes, are not no- 
ticed here. 

The radical vqwels of the irregular verbs are, with few 
exceptions, either a, e, i, ie, or the diphthong d ; which are 
varied in the imperfect and participle past, after the follow- 



mg manner: — 








Infinitive. 




Imperfect. 


Partic. Past. 


<*, 




{£} 


a. 


e, 




f «> 


e or c. 




l o, 


0. 


ei, 




i (or ie), 


i (or ft). 


t, 




a, 


it: 


ie (au, a, o, 


«)> 


c, 


0. 



The irregular verbs may therefore be divided into five 
classes, according to their radical vowels; those with a 
having however two, and those with e three, subdivisions. 



* In the 15th century there were, according to Dr. Grimm, 260 irregular 
verbs in German ; and at a more remote period probably still more. 



j 86.] CLASSIFICATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 195 

Class I. — Radical vowel a. 

1st Subdivision, a, It, a, 

as, fcWa^en, fdbfo#, aefc&laflctv 

like the English s/#z/, $/<?«;, sfozra, 

comprehends batfen, fa&ren, graben, laben, fc^ajfen, fd?tagen, tragen, 

wacfrfen, wafcfren. 

2nd Subdivision, a, te, a, 
as, fallen, fiel, .qefallen, 
nearly like ,/«//, y^Z/, fallen, 
comprehends blafen, braten, fallen, fangen, (witen, frangen, laffen, va= 
n>en,f#lafen. 

Class II. — Radical vowel C- 
1st Subdivision, e, d, t, 
as, fcl;en, fa& flefe&etv 
like 5^, saw, 5^w, 
comprehends effen (part, past g^geffen), freffen, geben,genefen,gefcr)efKn, 
iefen, meffen, fe&en, treten, oer-gefTcn. The verbs bitten, liegen, and 
figett, change their radical vowel in the same mariner. 

2nd Subdivision, C, a, 0, 

as, fyredfjen, fpradb, #efprodben, 
like speak, spoke, spoken, 

comprehend? befefclen, bergen, beaten, breefien, brefcfjen, erfcbretfen, 
geiten, ijelfen, ne&men, fcbelten, fprecben, freemen. frefrten, tferben, 
treffen, twberben, rcerben, werben, werfen. 

3rd Subdivision, e, 0, C, 

as, fdberen, fcfjor, ^efeboren, 

like shear, shore, shorn, 
comprehends bewegen, fecbtcn, fledbren, fceben, meffen, pflegen, quellen, 
fdberen, fc&meljcn, fcfrwellen. 

Class III. — Radical vowel eu 
ei, te (or i # ), te (or t # ), 

as, fceifjen, Big, ^ebiffen, 
like bite, bit, bitten, 
comprehends all the irregular verbs with ei — namely, beflct^en, beifen, 

* Only when the vowel is followed by an aspirate (dj, f, fj,) or by t> or t.~ 
See § 83, Obs. J. 

S 2 



196 CLASSIFICATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. [§ S6- 

bkiben, evbfetcfcen, gebet&en, gleicflen, gleiten, gveifen, f>eifjen (part, past 
get)ei£en), metben, pfeifen, preifen, retben, reifjen, reiten, fdbeiben, fdbeb 
nen, fct)letcDen, fcbleifen, fcfjmeifjen, fctjneiben, fc&reiben, fcftreiten, 
fcDreien, fcDmeigen, fpeien, jietgen, fft-eitf/en, fft-eiten, tmben, weic&en, 
weifen, gei^en. 

Class IV. — Radical vowel i. 

r, a, U or o # , 

as, (m^en, fang, flcftttiaen, 
like sing, sang, sung, 

comprehends all the irregular verbs with i immediately followed by !?, 
except bringen;— namely, beginnen, gewinnen, rinnen, finnen, fpinnen, 
binben, btngen (imperf. bung), bringen, finben, gelingen, fltngen, ringen, 
fdnnben (imperf. fct)unb), fcfwinben, fcblingen, fcfmungen, ftngen, fi'nfen ? 
fpringen, itinfen, trinfen, reinben, jwingen. 



Class V. — Radical vowel k. 
ie (au, a, o, it), o, o, 

as, frteren, fvor, #efroven, 
like freeze, froze, frozen, 

comprehends, with the exception of liegen, the verbs with ie and the 
few with ail, except fatlfett and fjauen, or with an inflected vowel d, b, U, 

—namely, biegen, bieten, fftegen, fliefjen, fliefjen, frteren, genie^en, 
gie£en, friect)en, riectjen, fdjieben, ftfnefjen, fctjliegen, fieben, fpriefen, 
triefen, perbrief;en,mlieren,wiegen, giefjen; faufen,faugen, fcDnauben, 
fcijrauben; erwdgen,. gd&ren, gebdren (imperf. gebar), racl)en, fcfjtraren ; 
erlofcjjen, frjwbren ; fiigen, tvilgen. 

Ofo. 1 . The learner must have perceived the close similarity between 
the German and English irregular conjugations; many verbs having in 
both languages the same, or nearly the same, variations of the radical 
vowel. This is particularly the case with the preceding fourth class. 
(Compare, for instance, the conjugation of trinfen, fpringen, beginnen, 
with that of the English verbs to drink, to spring, to begin.) The reason 
why the imperfect tenses of many of these verbs have in English and 
German different vowels, deserves notice here. 

In the ancient Teutonic, the imperfect indicative of the greater part 
of the irregular verbs, had in the singular (at least in the 1st and 3rd 
persons) a different vowel from the plural : thus, for instance, the im- 

* Only the five verbs ending in innen have o instead of u. 



§ 86.] CLASSIFICATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 197 

perfect indicative of the verb tvittfen, to drink, was in Old German, ic# 
trailf, Wit trttnfcn, &c. — and in Anglo-Saxon, ic dranc, we druncon, &c. 
The imperfect subjunctive was derived from the plural of the imperfect 
indicative — id) triinfc, ic trunce. 

A few traces of this practice are left m the present German, — namely, 
1.) in the imperfect of tvexbtn (see page 159); 2.) in the present tense 
(in form the imperfect tense — see note f, page 174) of the auxiliaries 
frinnen, mbgen, &c. ; and 3.) in the anomalous imperf. subj. of several 
verbs (see § 83, Obs. 2.) ; it being derived from the ancient form of the 
plural. — In English, the only remaining instance is the imperfect of the 
obsolete wesan — viz. / was, we were, (if) I were *. In all other verbs, 
both English and German, this practice has ceased, and either the vowel 
of the singular or that of the plural is used for both numbers of the 
imperfect. Now, in all the Teutonic languages, the verbs of the above- 
mentioned fourth class had, anciently, a in the sing, of the imperf. indie, 
and u in the plural. In modern German, the a is used throughout the 
whole tense in all verbs of this class, except btngen and febinben. In 
English, on the other hand, the u (in its modern sound ou, see note f, 
page 42.) prevails in all the verbs in ind — as, find, wind, bind, and in 
string and wring; whilst in most of the other verbs of this class, usage 
seems to fluctuate between the vowels of the two numbers (a and u), 
either being used for the whole imperfect ; as, sank, sunk; sprang, sprung; 
span, spun, &c. — We may further observe, that, in the verbs of the 
above third class, the vowel of the plural number of the imperfect was 
anciently i; which has prevailed in modern German for both numbers 
in all the verbs of this class ; but in English, only in the verbs chide, 
slide, bite, and Mde ; — in the others (as write, drive, &c.) the vowel of 
the Anglo-Saxon sing. — a, vitiated in English into o— was adopted for 
both numbers ; and in stride and ride, according to the English gram- 
mars, either vowel is used — as strode or strid, rode or rid, 

Obs. 2. In reading German, the following Table may be found useful 
in ascertaining the vowel of the infinitive from that of the imperfect, or 
of the participle past : — 



* In the ancient Teutonic there were a few other verbs which changed their 
final radical s into r, in the same cases as the above verb ; and moreover in the 
participle past. Thus, the Old German uerUufen, to lose, made the imperfect 
ind. id) ucrtoS, wit uctlutn ; imperf. subj. id) uertiire ; participle past, uertorn. 
The same parts in the Anglo-Saxon \ erb forleosan, were ic forleas, wefurluron; 
icforlure ; forloren. (The last word is the only part of this derivative still re- 
maining in English.) So also the Old German urtufen, Anglo-Saxonyrawm, 
(to freeze) ; and f tufen, ceosan, (to choose). It will be observed, that in En- 
glish, the s has been adopted through the whole conjugation of these verbs, 
and in modern German the r. However, of f iufen we have a derivative verb 
with either letter— erf iefen, and erfiiven. — See note f, page 1S9. 

s 3 



198 



REFLECTIVE VERBS 



[§87. 



Imperf. with Infin. with 

a comes from e. 
0, foil owed f comes "I • 
by n, I from J * 

t or ie comes from I ? 

comes from < .* m 
U comes from a. 



Part. Past with Infin. with 

i or ie comes from ei, 
comes from I • ' # 



u edbyn,j from j 



The other vowels come from in- 
finitives with the same vowel. 



REFLECTIVE VERBS. 
§ 87. These verbs, as already observed (§ 67), are always 
joined with a reflective pronoun ; but except this they have 
nothing peculiar, and are conjugated like other verbs. For 
instance, the reflective verb {id) fmtCtt, to rejoice, is conju- 
gated thus : — 

Indicative. 

Perfect. 
id) £abe mi# gefreuet, / have re x 

joked. 



Present. 
id) freue mid), / rejoice. 
bit freuejr bid), thou rejoiced. 

er freuet fid;, he rejoices. 
wir freuen un£, we rejoice. 

ifjt fl'euet Z\\d),you rejoice. 
fie freuen ft#, they rejoice. 

Imperfect. 
id) freuete mid), / rejoiced. 

bU freUetC |t bid), thourejoicedst,&c. 



6U |»aff bid) ^efreuet, ^om hast re- 
joiced, &c. 

Pluperfect. 

id) fmtte mid) gefteuet, I had re- 
joiced, &c. 



2nd Future. 
id) wexbe mid) gefreuet fjafren, / 

shall have rejoiced, &c. 



1st Future. 
\d) WtXbt mi$ freuen, I shall re- 
joice. 

b\x wirjr bid) freuen, thou wilt re- 
joice, &c. 

(Thus also the Subjunctive,— Present, id) freue mid), bu freuejl bi#, 
er freue ficf>,&c.-&c) 



Imperative. 

S. freue bid), "> r<?/oi(?<? 

(freue @r, or (gie, f?c&)» J (thou). 
P. freuen wir un», let us rejoice. 

freuet eucfc, U e> ^ CyoM) . 

(freuen @ie fi#), / ' y 



Infinitive. 

Pres. frdb freuen, to re/oic*. 
Part, fid) gefreuet jjaben, to have 

rejoiced. 

Participle Present. 
fid) freue nb, rejoicing. 



* In a few cases from au, or an inflected vowel (a, b, or ii); see Class V. 



$ 87.] REFLECTIVE VERBS. 199 

The part, past is not used reflectively by itself— -that is ? 
without being joined with the auxiliary fja&ett. 

A few verbs which govern, like the usual transitives, an 
object in the accusative, are always attended by the reflective 
pronoun in the dative, and are therefore also called reflective 
verbs. These are, fidb #etrauetT, to venture on s ftcfr amtTftgm, 
to assume ; jicf) dn6ilben, to imagine ; fief) &evau$mfc>men, to 
presume ,• jtcb t>OWe|}ttten, to determine upon ; ftc() tforfMlen, 
to conceive, and perhaps a few others : accordingly, we must 
conjugate, — Present, t# Qittaut ttttV (ettt>a3), I venture on 
(something), bu getrauefi bir, er $ etrauet (id), voiv ^etrauen an*, 
ifyt qettauet eudb, fte ^ettauen fid) ; and so in the other tenses. 

We subjoin the following observations concerning the 
signification of the reflective form : from the third observa- 
tion it will be seen, that this form is used to denote also 
reciprocal action. 

Obs. 1. The action expressed by reflective verbs is in its nature in- 
transitive ; hence, a few neuter verbs — as, baoon fcfcletcften, to sneak 

away ; nieber fnien, to kneel down; pem>eilen, to tarry ; tmtertaucften, 

to dive, &c, are, without any change of import, used also in, the reflec- 
tive form ; and we may indifferently say, er f#(ei#t bavcn, or er fcfjfeidbt 
(Ut) bacon, he sneaks away; fie frneten meber, or \ie fnieten ficfc> nteber, 
they kneeled down, — just as one may indiscriminately say in English, "He 
behaves well," or " He behaves himself well." For the same reason 
many transitive verbs are used in the reflective form, with no other dif- 
ference of import than their becoming intransitive ; as, erjUrnen, to make 
angry ; ft# erjUmen, to become angry. . See also § 67, Obs. 2. 

Very frequently, however, transitive verbs, when used reflectively, 
assume a different import, which cannot be ascertained from that of the 
transitive verb, and which must therefore be learned from practice or 
the dictionary. Thus, fcene&men, to deprive of,— fid) frene&meit, to be- 
have ; DCVfptecften, to promise,— fify t>erfpre#en, to make a slip of the 
tongue. 

Obs. 2. The third person of transitive verbs is sometimes employed 
reflectively with a passive import. This is done chiefly in two cases : 
1.) When the object of an action excites our principal attention, its 
subject being indefinite or little noticed by us, so that we may fancy the 
action to proceed from the object ; as, ^a b'ffhete fi'cft bie %t)W, unb 
C§ &c, then the door opened (was opened), and fyc. ; %auUnb <5#roerter 
etUHbfiten fl#, a thousand swords were unsheathed; 2>et (SctylUffel JKH 



200 IMPERSONAL VERBS. [§88. 

fid) geflinben, the key has beenfound. 2.) When ability, or aptitude for 
an action, is to be denoted ; which in English is frequently rendered by the 
auxiliary can ; as, 2)iefe$ leniet fid) tlUV (UI$ ber ©rfafSrUftg, this can be 
learned only from experience; £>iefe s 2?erfe lefett fid) fehr gut, these 

verses read very well; (vine folc&e SMetbigung oergift ficb nicfrt fdcfct, 

such an offence is not easily forgotten*. Very often, however, the auxiliary 
taffen is employed in the construction of such phrases. See § 86, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 3. It has already been noticed (§ 60, Obs. 2.), that the reflective 
pronouns Ulltf, tud), and fi'cft, may be used also in a reciprocal sense, 
denoting each other. — See the examples in § 60, Obs. 2. We may here 
add, that to express reciprocity, the word einflnber, each other, is often 
used instead of, or added to, these pronouns ; especially if the pronouns 
might be taken in a reflective sense; as, 2Mefe Beute plagen einatlber 
(or pfagen fid) einanber), these people plague each other, — plagen fid) 
might readily be mistaken for plague themselves. 

In the cases just considered, the action is simply transitive, and its 
reciprocity merely accidental. There are however some verbs which 
might be called reciprocal verbs, because they denote an action recipro- 
cal in its nature; as, fid) fcfrlagen, to fight a duel; fid) VCtabxebm, to agree 

upon ; fid) oevetntgen, to unite with ; ficb entsnmen, to fall out ; fid) au& 

fdbnen, to become reconciled with, to make it up with, &c. Such verbs have 
the reflective form throughout their conjugation; as, \d) fcfrlage tnid) 
(mit \emanbm), I fight (with somebody), bu fcfrlagf? bid), er Kblagt fid), wix 
fcfclagen tin£, &c. The other agent, if not included in the nominative 
of the verb, is joined with the preposition rttit, with; as, 3$ fcbfflge 
mid) mit metnem ©egner, 1 fight with my adversary; 2Dir fcfrlugen 
un$ mit bem #einbe, we fought with the enemy; Q,x janfte fid) mit 

feiltem 25rubev, he quarrelled with his brother f. If no other agent is 
particularly mentioned, the nominative, generally, includes both par- 
ties ; for instance, 3Btr fcfrlUgfit ltn» would usually be understood to 
mean, we fought with each other. 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
§ 88. With the exception of the imperative, which is not 
used in the 3rd person (see note*, page 154), the imper- 

* The affinity between the passive and the reflective import may also be 
perceived in the classic languages, where the converse of the above-mentioned 
usage occurs — the passive form having often a reflective signification — lavor 
(I wash myself) ; fallor (I deceive myself);— so also the middle voice in 
Greek. 

f That is, the quarrelling was reciprocal ; but if this verb has not the re- 
flective form, the noun after mit is not one of the agents, but the mere object 
of the action ; as, Qrr jnnfte mit feinem 23ebteaten, he scolded his servant. 



§ 88.] IMPERSONAL VERBS. 201 

sonal verbs are employed in all moods and tenses; as, 
re#nen, to rain ; e£ W#net, it rains ; e$ re#nete, it rained * 
e£ tvitb re^ncn, it will rain ; e£ fyat #ete#mt, it has rained ; 
(er fa#t) e$ regno, (he says) it rains, &c. &c. Many verbs 
which in English are personal verbs, have in German the 
impersonal form, the person (in English the nominative) 
being put either in the accusative (which is more generally 
the case), or in the dative ; as, 
e$ Iwngert inicb, lam hungry. e$ #elingt rmr, I succeed. 

tx> frungett btcfr, thou art hungry, c§ geltngt bit, thou succeedest. 
C$b\m8en\im{fk),he(orshe)is hungry. ?$ CjClmgt i&ttt, he succeeds. 
t$ i)UngCrt 11115, we are hungry. ?$ geltngt Ull^, we succeed. 

e» Jmn^ert eiicb, you are hungry. e» gelttl^t etl$, you succeed. 
C» fclMflert fie, they are hungry. t$ geutigt i^Jlten, they succeed. 

This form is particularly employed to express sensations 
or feelings of the moment ; as, 

(S$ buvjtet mid), I am thirsty ; e§ fcfcaubert mid), I shudder; esfcfrlafert 

mi#, lam sleepy ; e5 DeHattgt mid), I long for; e» miet mid), Ire- 
pent, or it repenteth me; e$ VtxW\?$\ mid), I am vexed ; e$ freilft mid), 
I am glad; e$ frtert mi#, / am cold (e$ frtert, without an accusative of 
the person, denotes it freezes); ei> afmet ttltr, my mind forebodes ; t% 

fcfcttunbtlt mix, 1 feel giddy ; e» tjr mir leib, lam sorry ; es ijt mix x\id)t 

tt?0&l, I feel unwell; e» roirb mir Oijnma#tig, I feel faint, &c. &c. 

A fev/ impersonals have the reflective form*; as, c$ 
mi^mt [id), it happens : e$ ^iemt (Qthixfytt) fidb, it is be- 
coming; e3 wvtoljnt ficjj (bet 2)?ii(K)> # ft worth {while), &c &c. 

Ofo. 1 . Several personal verbs are used also impersonally, but gene- 
rally with a different import. Thus,er hungert Itnb friert, signifies he is 
starving with hunger and cold ; whilst the impersonals, e$ fjUttgert i&tl, t$ 
friert ifm, denote merely the temporary feeling of hunger or cold. So 
also, er fcegegnete mix, he met me— H begecmete mtr, it happened to me, 1 

met with; er begab fid), he betook himself— 1$ bt$ab fid}, it happened ; 
er fretfjt, he is called — e5 &eif?t, it is said. The import of such imper- 
sonals must be ascertained from the dictionary ; as no rule can be laid 
down with regard to the modification of the personal verbs by the im- 
personal form, except in the cases mentioned in the next observation. 

* These verbs, which are never used personally, must not be confounded 
with the reflective impersonal form explained in 06s. 2., which is a mere mo*. 
dification of personal verbs. 



202 IMPERSONAL VERBS. * [§ 88. 

Obs. 2. In order to state an action without any reference to its agent, 
personal verbs (whether transitive or intransitive) may be used imper- 
sonally both in the passive and in the reflective form ; each form, how- 
ever, with a different modification of the verb — namely, 

1.) The passive impersonal form signifies simply the performance of an 
action, without reference to any definite subject; as, @» ttHrb gelacfct, 
gefpieft, tmb getanjjt tm nac&ffeit Sinim^ there is laughing, playing, and 
dancing in the next room * / <j?g fturb geflopft, some one knocks ; @g barf 

|)ter ni#t geraucbt rcerben, smoking is not allowed here; @$ trirb fceute 

frUf) gefpeifet, dinner will be early today. 

2.) The reflective impersonal form implies an aptitude to an action ; 
as, @$ tatljt fid) gltt in Me fem 3im met, this room is well suited to dancing; 
(£$ fdjret&t ficfr nid)t gilt mit btefer ^eber, one cannot write well with this 
pen f. 

It will be observed, that these impersonal forms are in signification 
analogous to the third person used reflectively with a passive import 
(§ 87, Obs. 2.), inasmuch as they all refer the action to an indefinite 
subject : and indeed they may all be rendered by the indefinite pronoun 
man, one, they, with the active form of the verb ; as, 5)ian tangt tm 

na'cfriten Simmer, they dance in the next room; WIcm fjat ben @#lit|fel 

gefunben, they have found the key. The reflective impersonals, as well 
as the other reflectives denoting aptitude or ability (§ 87, Obs. 2.), may 
be rendered also by fid) laffen, or by foillien, with the infinitive of the 
principal verb; as, (5$ lafjt ficfj (or 9)?an fann) ttid)t gut mit biefer 
$eb*r f#rei6en, one cannot write well with this pen ; Qat lajjft fid) (or 

Wan fann bat) nttr au4 ber @rfaforung fernen, one can leam that only 

from experience. — See also $ 82, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 3. In the passive impersonal verbs, C$ must be omitted (and con- 
sequently the verb is without a nominative) whenever, according to the 
German order of words, it cannot immediately precede its verb — that is, 
in all those cases where the verb either precedes its nominative, as in 
inversions, or is placed, last in the sentence, as in subordinate clauses 
(see the order of words in the Syntax). The following are examples : 
3m na'cfcften Simmer wirb (not iturb e»~) getan$t,m the next room people 

are dancing; $Battn wtrb heilte gefpeifet ? when do we (or they) dine ffr 
day? 3$ glaube, ba£ (not ba$ e6) geffopft tturb, / believe somebody 
knocks. (S» under the same circumstances (i. e. when it cannot pre- 
cede its verb,) is very generally omitted with the impersonals denoting 

* Just like the Latin impersonals, ridetur, luditur, saltatur, itur, &c. 

j- If the e£ of such expressions has not an indefinite import, but refers to a 
following clause, the verb belongs to the class of reflectives mentioned at § 87, 
Obs. 2., and has therefore a passive import; as, &i fnnfc fid) nnd^er, bag &c, it 
was found afterwards that $c. ; Qi uerjtefyet fid), bfijj et &c, it is understood (it 
is a matter of course) that he $c. 



§ 89.] COMPOUND VERBS. 203 

feelings or sensations, and invariably so with the impersonals e$ ijt and 
£$ Wivb when accompanied by a predicate of this import; as, mid) hum 
^Vt, I am hungry ; VM$ bUY ft tt, we are thirsty ; wmtl bid) fwtt, if thou 
art cold; mi# biinft, methinks* ; i)i (not ift e£) 3&nen ni#t WOfyl? are 
you not well? mix ttmrbe (not ttmrbe e$) U6e(, I fainted, &c. 

06s. 4. There is an impersonal form, if we may call it so, in which e$ 
is not the subject to the verb, but rather a particle of an indefinite im- 
port, often answering to the English there, the real nominative to the 
verb being placed after the verb; as,@» fommen no# mehr©tijte, there 
are more guests coming; Q£$ flopft jemanb, there is somebody knocking ; 
Q$ iff Jrtebe gema$t WOfben, peace has been made ; @§ ift em ®ott, 
there is a God. This form, which may be used with most verbs, seems 
intended to draw our attention more to the nominative; and therefore 
it is chiefly employed when, as in the above examples, the nominative 
either is an unascertained subject, or is now first introduced to our 
notice. Hence, it is not used if the nominative be a personal pronoun 
or a proper name. Thus we could not say, (5$ fommen fif, they are 
coming ; @» f lopft $etnrtch, Henry is knocking. This form is used also 
optatively, or imperatively; as, (&§ lebe bet ^b'nig ! long live the king I 
<§,$ fcerrfcfre bat SRecfrt, let the right prevail. 

In these impersonals, too, e£ must immediately precede the verb, and 
is therefore omitted in all those cases in which it must be omitted in the 
passive impersonal (see the preceding observation) ; as, ^Diefen 9(6enb 
fommen (not fommen eg) nod) mef)r ©afte, this evening there are more 
guests coming ; flopft (not ffopft e£) jettUnb? is there anybody knock- 
ing? ttJetin $rtebe gemactjt t|?, if peace has been made. — It will be seen 
from these examples, that the English there, in such instances, must re- 
main untranslated. 

COMPOUND VERBS. 

§ 89. Verbs are compounded almost exclusively with par- 
ticles denoting a local relation, which, with few exceptions, 
are used also as prepositions. Most of these particles are 
separable — that is, in certain cases explained hereafter, they 
are separated from the verb with which they are compound- 
ed ; some are inseparable ; and a few are both separable and 
inseparable. (Regarding the latter, see § 90.) 

The inseparable particles are, Winter, behind; n?iber, 
against (see however § 90, Obs. 4.) ; Dolt, full ; and mif?, 

* The above, it would seem, is the only instance remaining in English of 
this construction, which in Anglo-Saxon was more extensively used. 



204? COMPOUND VERBS. [$ 89. 

mis.; — among which are generally reckoned also the pre- 
fixes 6e, emp, Cut, er, gc, ret, and ^er, (though, strictly speak- 
ing, the latter are mere servile syllables — see § 12.) These 
particles are never separated from the verbs with which they 
are compounded; and such compound verbs need no further 
explanation in this place, having, as already stated (§§ 74 
and 84), nothing peculiar in form to distinguish them from 
other verbs, except the omission of the augment. 

The following nineteen are separable particles : (See also 
Obs. 2.) 

ab, of fort, away, forth. Ob, over, on. 

O.W, on. f}CY, hither. VCt, before, 

dUf, up. £it1, thither. tt?eg, away. 

<XU§, out. 10?, loose. irieber, again, back. 

bei, by. mix, with. in, to. 

bat, there. lia#, after. 

ein, in. nieber, down. 

The following are examples of verbs compounded with such particles : 
— afcretfen, to set of, to depart; fOVtyeljCn, to go away, to follow ; ailfc 

fceben, to lift up ; au^giefen, to pour out; anfangen, to begin ; einfii^ 

ten, to lead in, to import ; (UlrfU&ren, to export ; 6eifref)en, to stand by, 

to assist; fcinreicfoen, to suffice ; gumadien, to shut to. 

Obs. l. From the preceding examples it may be seen, that these com- 
pounds are quite similar to such English verbs as ' to set in,' * to set 
out,' ' to set off,' ' to set forth,' ' to set on,' * to set to,' ' to set up,' &c, 
which are also considered as compounds by English grammarians, though 
the particle and the verb are not joined in writing. 

With regard to the separation of these particles from 
their verbs, the following rules must be observed : — 

1st. In the present and imperfect tenses, both indicative 
and subjunctive, the particle is separated and placed after 
its verb, and even after the words depending upon the verb 
(if there be such in the proposition) ; except when the verb 
depends upon a relative, or a subordinative conjunction (see 
the Conjunctions), in which case the particle remains un- 
separated. 

2dly. In the imperative the particle is always separated, 
and placed after the verb and its dependents. 



§ 89.] COMPOUND VERBS. 205 

3dly. In the infinitive and participles the particle remains 
always prefixed. However, when the infinitive requires ^u, 
to, this word is inserted between the separable particle and 
the verb, all three being joined as one word ; as, jcf) ttlltj? 
e$ aufmadbcn (%umad)w), I must open (shut) it ; 3db bin #e= 
nbt|ri#t e$ auf^umacben (^umadben), / am obliged to open 

(shut) it. The same insertion takes place with respect to 
the augment #e in the participle past, — auf#emacj)t; jit£C= 
tttaciirt, opened, shut. — See also the end of page 156. 

We will exemplify the preceding rules by the verbs au$- 
$e(i)ett, to go out, and tfOfjMkn, to present, also to represent* 
The former verb is irregular — see §l\)tx\, page 189. 

(Rule i.) 3$ ge&e au$*, I go out; 3$ ge&e jeben Sag au£, I go out 

every day ; (Singett @ie gejfcrtt atl$ ? die? you go out yesterday ; @r fagt, 

er gefje nte au^,Ae*ay*, he never goes out ; 3$ f?ellte i&m meinen S^ef* 

fen VOY, I presented my nephew to him; SBartim jtellen @te Ut\§ ntcbt 
S&fCl' @cr)WCffer OOt? why do you not present us to your sister? — @$ 

rennet immer, wenn ui) au^ge&e, ft always rains when I go out ; %$ 
fenne ben £>errn, mtt roeldfrem er au^gtng, / ^mow the gentleman with, 
whom he went out; %d) wiinfc&te, bafj er @ie £»ei £cfe sorjtellte, I wished, 

that he would introduce you at court; ^cl) fragte t&n, tt>en CY VCYftcUtt, 
I asked him whom he represented. 

(Rule 2.) ©teHen @ie un£ 3&rer 6#wef?er «or, introduce us to your 

sister; ©elje nt#t aUetn atl$, do not go out by yourself. 

(Rule 3.) @f &at mi C^l ntdfjt t)Orge|tel(t, he has not presented me; 

@ie if? nieVt au^gegangen, she is not gone out; ^cb werbe freute cu»& 
ge^en (ifm uorjiellen), /«Aa# go ou* (present him) today; @r bat mtcb 

mtt i^m aU^Uge^en (ifm POVJUjMlen), he begged me to go out with him 

(to present him); 2Eic& fetner Gutter ooritellenb, fagte er, &c, wtfro- 

ducing me to his mother, he said, fyc. — See also § 92, Obs. 

Obs. 2. There are many other words, of almost all parts of speech, 
which, like the preceding particles, form an essential part of the mean- 
ing of the verb to which they are added, and may therefore be con- 
sidered, to a certain degree, as a component part of it, though they are 
not united with it as one word. Thus in the expressions, Xrog fcteten, 
to bid defiance ; fpajteren ge&etl, to take a walk; gt'Ofj t&tin, to brag; 
(id) anfjetfefcig maften (JU etwa$), to engage oneself (to something) ; 2?e= 

benfen rragen, to hesitate; 311 ©runbe ge&en, to perish; ju 3>?au)e %'ic-- 

fren, to consult, the words preceding the infinitive form but one idea 

* Even when separated, the particle has the verbal accent, — just like the 
English particles out, &c. mentioned in the above Observation. Compare § 90. 

T 



206 COMPOUND VERBS. [§ 89. 

with it; which indeed, in English and in other languages, is often ex- 
pressed by a simple verb. These separate verbal components, as they 
may be called, not only affect the sense of the verb like the above- 
mentioned separable particles, but also occupy the same place in 
the sentence ; that is, in those cases where the particle remains un- 
separated (viz. in the infinitive and participles, and the finite verb of sub- 
ordinate clauses), they, too, remain before the verb; but in the other 
cases, where the particle is thrown to the end of the sentence, they are 
so likewise; as, %&) Wtvbe t&m XrO# btetett, J shall defy him; 3'$' fca&e 

feme %?it fpa^ieren 311 ge&en, I have no time to take a walk; @» rennet 

immer, rrenn id) fpajteren ge&e, it ahvays rains when I take a walk; %#} 
flChe jebeil Xa$ fpajteten, / take a walk every day ; Xfjun @te mit 
3^em 9vetcF)t&iltt1 tttcbt fO QfOJ?, do not brag so much about your riches. 

• From what has been said, the student will readily observe, 1.) That 
when a word or phrase at the end of a sentence or clause is in sense 
unconnected with the words immediately preceding it, it must be con- 
sidered as a component part of the verb, in conjunction with which its 
import must be ascertained; 2.) That, on the other hand, in learning a 
German verb from the dictionary, all the words preceding the infinitive 
must be considered as separate components of the verb, which must 
take their places before the verb or at the end of the sentence, accord- 
ing to the above directions'; 3.) That the difference between these verbal 
components and the 19 separable particles of the above list (p. 204), is 
merely of an orthographical nature, — the former being always written 
separately, whilst the latter are united with the verb when preceding 
it. — See, however, Obs, 4. 

Obs. 3. The position of the verbal component with regard to its verb 
arises from a peculiarity in the German order of words, which, being also 
the cause of the separation of the particle from its verb, it will be useful 
briefly to explain here : — 

It is a general rule, which obtains, more or less, also in other lan- 
guages, that the limiting or explanatory word should precede that which 
it limits or explains ; or, in other words, that the dependent should 
precede the word upon which it depends. Thus, in the phrases, "very 
beautifully furnished houses," " my neighbour's children," every word 
limits and defines the next following. In German this rule holds good, 
in certain instances, also with verbs ; namely, with the infinitive and 
participles, and with the finite * verb of subordinate clauses ; and all 
the words, therefore, that limit or depend on the verb, must in these 
instances precede it, — more closely or more remotely, according to their 
closer or remoter connexion with it. 

* Finite verb, is the verb inflected according to person and number — that is, 
any part of the verb but the infinitive and participles. 



§ 89.] COMPOUND VERBS. 207 

Hence the words treated of in the last observation, as forming a com- 
ponent part of the verb, and which are therefore most closely connected 
with it, must then precede it immediately in those cases. See the three 
first examples in the preceding page. 

In the cases, it must be observed, in which the verb takes this posi- 
tion after all its dependents, it is not assertive* ; for the infinitive and 
participles are mere verbal nouns, and the finite verb of a subordinate 
clause does not assert or impart any new fact to the hearer. But in 
independent propositions, where the verb is in its proper function of 
asserting, the finite verb, as the part implying the assertion, is placed 
close to its subject, whilst all the other words remain in the same order 
as in the subordinate clause. Accordingly, the verbal component, which 
in the subordinate clause is last but one, — being followed only by the 
verb, — is in the independent proposition the very last ,• so that all the 
other dependents of the verb are inserted between the verb and its 
component. — See the three last examples of the preceding Obs. 

This tendency of the assertive verb to precede all the words limiting 
it, is the cause that in verbs compounded with any of the above-men- 
tioned nineteen particles, the particle, as a limiting word of the simple 
verb, is disjoined and put at its usual place at the end of the sentence, 
when the verb is assertive, and therefore placed close to its subject. 

The preceding remark may, more concisely, be expressed thus : — In 
an independent sentence the copula f , or the part of the verb implying 
the copula, stands close to the subject, whilst the predicate f is quite at 
the end of the sentence. This tendency of the assertive copula and the 
predicate, to occupy respectively almost the two extremes of the sen- 
tence, is the cause, that with compound verbs soluble into their com- 
ponent parts, the simple verb, as implying the copula, is in independent 
sentences divested of its component, which, as belonging to the predi- 

* See the Conjunctions, where the difference between the assertive and 
non-assertive verb will be fully explained. 

f As these terms will occur often in the sequel, a short explanation of them 
may perhaps be acceptable to some learners : — In every proposition there must 
be, 1st, a subject-, that is, a noun or pronoun to which we attribute something 
(as an action, a state, or some circumstance) ; 2ndly, a predicate, or attribute ; 
that is, the action or state, &c. which is attributed ; and Srdly, a copula ; 
that is, the word denoting the attribution, or the word that unites the predi- 
cate with the subject. Thus in the proposition "John is writing," (or "is 
rich," or " is here,") " John" is the subject, " writing" ("rich," or " here,") 
the predicate, and "is" the copula. The verb to be is the only verb which can 
be used as a pure copula ; that is, as denoting merely the attribution, without 
any part of the attribute (predicate) ; all the other verbs imply, besides the 
attribution or copula, either the whole or part of the predicate. Thus if we 
tay, " The days increase," the verb includes the copula and the whole predi- 
cate,— being equivalent to " are increasing" ; but if we say, " The days get 
longer," the verb, being equivalent to " are getting," contains only a part of 
the predicate, — the word " longer" forming the other part. 

t2 



208 COMPOUND VERBS. [§ 89. 

cate, takes its place at the end of the sentence. Hence it comes also 
that there are no inseparable compound verbs in German, but such as 
belong to the second class of compounds mentioned in section 19. — 
See also the following Obs. 

Obs. 4. In our list of the separable particles, we have followed the 
authority of Adelung, who asserts that those alone have that orthogra- 
phical privilege of being united with their verbs when preceding them, 
and that all other words forming component parts of the verb ought to 
be written separately. But though this rule may suffice for the student 
in his writing German, it must be allowed that usage in this respect is 
not uniform, and that, as he will observe in reading, a great many other 
words are now frequently joined with their verbs in the same manner 
as the above particles. Among these the following may, perhaps, be 
distinguished as most commonly joined : — empOf, upwards; entgegCR, 
towards, also against ; fyt\m, home ; Ufcerein, concordant; ^UTUCf, back; 
gufammen, together; and almost all adverbs compounded with fjer, j)in, 
or rjor (e.g. &erau£, out; fctnetn, in; porfcei, over, &c.) ; as, empcrfont: 
men, to get up, to rise ; entgegen^e&en, to go to meet; fceimfefcren, to 
return home; Uberetnffimmen, to agree, to accord ; fjerauSfomnien, to 

eome out ; VCxtibex$efytt\, to pass by, &c. &c. Several adjectives, too, 
and even some substantives, are often joined with particular verbs, when 
they are used figuratively ; as, wafrwe&tnen, to become aware, to per- 
ceive ; ttwfrrfagen, to prophesy (which is, however, often used as an in- 
separable compound); feftneftmett, to arrest; fretfpvecfren, to acquit; 
fcau£(m(ten, to keep house ; g(iiCftt>Unf$en, to congratidate, &c. 

As it would be difficult to give a complete list of all the words which 
are, more or less generally, united with verbs in the same manner as the 
separable particles, it may suffice merely to remark, that all compound 
verbs (i. e. of which both parts are separately current) occurring in Ger- 
man must be considered as separable; except those compounded with 
inseparable particles (see the beginning of this section), and those given 
in the margin below *, which are also inseparable. The latter, however, 
(most of which occur but seldom,) can hardly be called exceptions, as 
they are, for the greatest part, not compound verbs, but derivatives of 
compound nouns : thus, £ofmeif?ern, to censure, is not a compound of 
£)0f and meiftern, but is derived from the substantive JpofttlCifler, go- 
vernor; frii^ttiCf en, to breakfast, is derived from bat $ru£f?UCf, the break- 
fast. 

* Sttgroofynen, fcrniibfc^eti, fro!)(o<fen, fruf)fh'tcfen, fud)$fd)roan}ert, gtrtttetfen, 
fterfcergen, fyofmeifrern, fyo()n(ad)e(n, fyofynecfen, fnpdgen, ftetyofen, furjnmten, inng* 
roeilen, lie(?auge(n, iie6fpfen, luftiuanbcln, mutfymnfjen, nndjtroanbetn, notl)$ud)tigett, 
red)tfertigen, fcfjulmetfrern, tngewerfen, roetterteucfyten, rcettetfern, roeiSfrtgen, mtjtla* 
gen, roortroecfyfeln ; and all the verbs given § 84, Obs. 1. 



§ 90.] COMPOUND VERBS. 209 

We will conclude by adding the following remarks : — 1.) When at 
the beginning of a compound verb there are two particles, these con- 
joined form the separable part of the verb; as, JUOPffommen, to pre- 
vent; baoonlaufen, to runaway — e? fommt3ut)or,&c. — The verb iiber: 
XJOrtfre'tlen, to overreach, it may here be observed, is inseparable. 2.) If 
a verb begins with any of the seven prefixes, no part of it is separable, 
though such prefix should happen to be followed by one of the sepa- 
rable particles ; as, ktOiU ftragen, to commission ; CCrabVaumen, to neglect 
— id} beauftra#e, &c. However, in bet)Pr|tef)en, to await, and in com- 
pounds with entgroei, in two (as, entgweibrecben, to break in two, &c), 
bevov and entgroet are separable; as, 2Ba$ fteftft ttltrfcecor ? what awaits 
me? (§i btafy entgttJC!, it broke in two. 3.) On the other hand, when 
the separable particle begins the compound verb, it is separable even 
when the second component part, (i. e. the verb,) begins with a prefix; 

as, aufbewa&ren, to preserve; anbefe&len, to enjoin— i# bewa&re atif, 

&c. That in such compounds the participle past drops the augment $e, 
has already been mentioned (p. 156). 4.) There are a few compound 
verbs which are inseparable merely because they are never used assert- 
ively; that is v as the finite verb of an independent proposition (see 
Obs. 3.), and which may therefore be considered as defective. This is 
chiefly the case with the few compound verbs beginning with atljtrand 
<XU§ex ; as, aufer^teben, to bring up from infancy; ailfetlegen, to enjoin ; 
iXUtiCVWdfyUn, to select, &c. ; none of which verbs occur assertively, and 
some of them are used only in the infinitive and participles. The verb 
twentljalten, to withhold illegally, also hardly ever occurs assertively. 
The verbs lo6(ingen, to sing in praise, and lobpretjVn, to praise, to exalt, 
occur only in the infinitive; and anbetreffVn, or anbelangen, to concern, 
is used only in the expresssion, wa$ mid) (bid), U115, &c.) anbCtvtfft (or 
anMangt), as for what concerns me (thee, us, &c). 

§ 90. The four particles, butdb? through ; uBct, over ,• am, 
round, or round about, also down; wttev, under, are in 
some verbs separable, in many others inseparable, and in 
some separable or inseparable, according to their import. 
When separable, they have the principal accent *, and are 
subjected to the same rules as the other separable particles 
(§ 89) ; when inseparable, the accent is on the second com- 
ponent*, the verb, and, consequently, the participle past has 
not the augment #e (see §§ 19 and 74); as, untetqeljen, to 
go down, also to perish ; £>ie Sonne $i#Ct ttnter, the sun sets, 
(Te ift ifatergeaanflen, it has set; in (Sefa&r linter^etjen, in 

* Just as the English accent to look ever and to overlook. 
T 3 



210 \ COMPOUND VERBS. [§ 90. 

danger of perishing; — unteftK^tttett, to undertake; idf) tin? 
ternel;me, / undertake ; tdf) tyabi unternommen, / have under- 
taken ; ruir nmnfdben ba$ $\ unterne'&men, we wish to undertake 
that ; unteri;alten, to hold under ; id) ^alte tmtev, I hold under, 
Sec.; — tmterfja'lten, to amuse; id) unterlja'lte, / amuse, &c. 

The following rules will serve for ascertaining when these 
four particles are separable, and when not : — 

I. When the particles imply in their respective com- 
pounds the same relation of place which they denote as 
prepositions — namely, bur4), through (i. e.Jrom end to end); 
Uttt, round, on all sides ; ixhiX, over ; and untCV? under — they 
are inseparable if the object of the local relation they de- 
note is the accusative* of the compound verb, and separable 
if that object is not expressed — it being understood or left 
out of view. See Obs. 1 . 

II. But when in the compound, the particle is used in a 
different sense from that which it has as a preposition, or 
when its peculiar import is not distinctly felt in the com- 
pound, bltxd) and unt are separable, and tifcef and Utttev are 
inseparable (see also Obs. 3.). 

I. Examples of the first Rule :— @tn ©trom btlr$ffiei?t bit (Stabt, a 
stream flows through the town; 2)ie Sellen burdbfrraefcen ben ^>amm,the 

waves broke through the sea-wall; (5r burdjretf te VkU l l anbet, he tra- 
velled through many countries ;— 3$ &^lt mt# CM jettem Dtt ttidjt auf, 
id) tCtf'tC IlUr btircfr, I did not stay at that place, I merely passed through 
[it] ; @te Ite^en ttli# ntC&t bUtCb, they did not let me through. 

2Bir umfcfctfften bte %t\UU we sailed round the island ; @r umarmte 

ba$ £tttb, he embraced (threw his arms around) the child; UmgUrtet eurc 
Ccnben mtt ^JBa&rtjeit, gird your loins about with truth ; — ©Urte mir ba$ 
©C&tKrt Um, gird me on my sword; 2Btrf etnett Mantel «m, throw a 
cloak round [you], 

@v iiberfufor etnett 5)?ann, he drove over a man ; Uefcerge&e biefe ©telfe, 

pass by (or over) this passage ; — (Sr fU&r Ub(V,he crossed over (the river) ; 



* The accusative case of the active voice being the subject or nominative 
of the passive, the object referred to by the inseparable particle is accordingly, 
in the passive voice, in the nominative case ; as, 2)ec 2)amm ijt burcfyfcrocfyen, 
the dam is broken through ; (it tjr oon geinben umge&en, he is surrounded by ene- 
mies. This is probably also the reason that the two neuter verbs, u&erfrteren, 
to freeze over, iU'erfjfltfcfyen, to cicatrize over, in which the particle refers to the 
nominative, are inseparable ; their import being more of a passive nature. 



§90.] COMPOUND VERBS. 211 

2)a$ 2Bafler fodbt uber, *£<? water 6o*& over; @r ging sum #einbe liber, 

he went over to the enemy. 

@ie unterb'obften bie $eftung, they undermined the fortress ; Unter= 
#reid)e bkU* 2Bort, underline this word; ($v unterbanb e$ mit einer 
@c&nur, A* /i«J a ^rmg fe/ot</ ft;— @t banb etn Xttd) unter, fo *i«f 
a cM fe/o«/ (something understood) ; 2)a» ©C&iff QMg unter, */*<? ship 
went down; @r tattd)te unter, he dived under; %B'lX jtanben tinter, we 
stood under. 

II. Examples of the second Rule :— @V fmt bct£ gan^e Cattb burd)ge* 
reift, Ac to travelled all over the country (see Obs. 2.) ; @ie &flt $re 

©dmfje burcfrgegangen, ^e to worn out her shoes ; @r &at fein ganje$ 
2?erm'ogen burcfrgebracfct, A<? to run through all Ms fortune ; — @ie ft'el um, 
she fell down; Wix fe^vten urn, we ^™<?d to& ; 2Denbe ba§ 25(att urn, 

tarn over the leaf; @r fah fid? Um, /*<? /oo/t:<?d afozft; 3$ bringe @ie Ut«, 
I kill you; @r rantlte (or fu&r) etn ftnb um, he ran (or drove) a child 
down; 2Ctr finb Vkl ttmgefafrren, we ^aw? driven very circuitously ; 3$ 

fjafce biefen 3luffag umgearbeitet, I have recast this essay ; @r fcjmefc 

ben 29ftefUttl, ^ transcribed the letter (in the sense of to paraphrase, 
however, umfd()reiben is inseparable). 

3$ bin gegwungen bat %u uberarbeiten (iiberfdjreiben), 1 am obliged 

to do {write) this over again ; (5r Ubevjettgte mid), he convinced me ; 2)a£ 

iff Ubertrieben,*to is exaggerated;— Unterbricb' mid) ni#t, do wo* iwfer- 

rupt me; (*X unternimmt e$, he undertakes it. 

The following inseparable compounds are some further examples of 
the second rule : — Ubet'bieten, to outbid; Ubemlen, to overhasten; U6er« 

wtntern, to pass the ivinter ; ubernacfcten, to pass the night; uberlaben, 

to overload; UbeWeffen, to surpass; untetrici)ten, to instruct; unter* 
bfeiben, to remain unexecuted. 

Obs. 1 . It will be seen that the inseparable compounds belonging to 
the first rule, are always attended by an accusative case which is the 
object of the prepositional function * involved in the compound, and 
not of the simple verb; thus, the above accusatives, Stabt, %nft\, 
3)tann, and $efhtng, are the objects through, round, over, or under 
which the action of the respective verbs is directed. But the separable 
compounds of the first rule either are (as in the example er reif te 
burd)) intransitive, or, when transitive (as in @ie lief>en mid) nicfrt 
burd)), the accusative is the object of the action expressed by the 
simple verb, (the latter being then a transitive,) and not of the par- 
ticle, which, by the relation of place it expresses, merely defines the 

* If the simple verb is transitive, its object must in the compound be pre- 
ceded by mit, with, — just as one would say in English, " He underlaid the 
diamond with foil," — instead of " He laid foil under the diamond." See the 
above example of the inseparable untetDinben. 



ZVl COiMPOUND VERBS* [§ 90. 

direction of the action. The characteristic, therefore, of the separable 
particle is adverbial, and that of the inseparable is prepositional* Hence 
the accusative of the inseparable compounds, like that of a preposition, 
is stationary with regard to the action, whilst the accusative of the se- 
parable compounds undergoes in the action the change of place indi- 
cated by the particle. — See the two examples of Uttl^Urtftt, and those 
of unterbinben. 

Obs. 2. When the separable particle bttvcfi refers to an accusative 
expressed (see for instance the first example of the second rule,) it 
does not, as when inseparable, denote the same relation of place as 
the preposition btircf) — viz, simply from end to end, but implies a con- 
tinuation of the action to the end of the object *, without any particu- 
lar reference to the beginning of it. Such compounds, therefore, are 
often joined with adverbs which refer only to the latter part of the ac- 
tion or energy as directed to the end of the object ; whilst, when the 
same verbs are inseparable, the adverbs must refer to the action as di- 
rected to the whole object. Thus, @r &at ba$ 3af>r Qliicf Itch" bltvd^Cs 
le6t, happily he has lived the year out, infers that he was not expected to 
live to the end of the year, and the adverb " happily" therefore relates 
to his having lived to the end of that time; but, (Sr hat ba5 %af)V ftlUcfs 
ltd? bUTCblebt signifies he has lived (all) the year happy; Qv hat ba$ 
$0lg tttcbt blU'dt)yebort infers that he has bored at the. wood, but not 
quite through ; but ntc&t bttrcfrbort simply denies the action. Hence, all 
inseparable compounds with bllV$, except snch as preclude this idea of 
continuation — as, blircfyfretlgen, to intersect; b\lt(i)WebCn, to interweave — 
may be used also separably to denote continuation of the action till quite 
through the object. 

Obs. 3. On examining the above two rules, it will be seen, that in the 
first are comprehended all the inseparable compounds of bUVCb" and Ullt, 
and all the separable compounds of Uber and Ulltcr. The two rules may 
therefore more compendiously be expressed thus : — The particles bur # 
and utn are always separable, except when involving a prepositional func- 
tion ; that is, a direction through, or round, the accusative of the com- 
pound verb, in which case they are inseparable; — and, on the other hand, 
the particles U6er and Unter are always inseparable, except when they 
have the character of adverbs of place; that is, when denoting over and 
under merely with regard to the action or energy expressed by the simple 
verb, leaving out of view the object of over or under. 

With regard to the latter particles we add the following remarks : — 

1.) In the separable compounds Uberbktben, to remain (as leavings), and 

^t~ ■ 

* Analogously to such English phrases as, "to talk oneself hoarse," "to 
eough a person down" ; which imply a continuance of the action till that 
effect is produced. 



§ 91.] IMPORT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 213 

U6erfaf]en, to leave (as remnants), Uber is used for U&rtg, remaining. In 
a few other separable compounds, uber denotes o^or beyond the basis; 
as, uberffuvjen or UberfdfHagen, to fall upside down or backwards. When 
used in the reflective form, though they have the same import, they are 
inseparable j as, @r UbevfcfHUg ficfr, he fell backwards. 2.) When the 
proper import of a separable compound is used metaphorically, it re- 
mains separable; as, iibertreten, to step over (to another place);— >- 
hence, figuratively, @r glng ju etner anbern $artf i Ufrer, A<? went over to 

another party ; untetgefjen is separable, whether denoting to go down 
(below the surface, or horizon), or to perish. The subjoined verbs are 
inseparable j probably because no metaphor is felt in German, — that is, 
the verbs suggest directly to the mind the idea to be conveyed, without 
the intervention of the proper or local meaning of over or under : — 

uberfe^en, to translate ; uberveben, to persuade; unterbrucfen, to sup- 

press; iMtettrerfen, to submit, to subject ; unterltegett, to succumb; un* 
terfcftftiben, to subscribe, to sign (whether with reference to a paper, or 
to one's name) ; ficfr unterjtejen (etner Arbeit), to take upon oneself {a 
work) j and perhaps a few others. 4.) Compounds with Ubet* implying 
a transferring over to another person — as, UbetltefeM, to deliver ; tiber? 
madden, to make over ; Ubetfcfritfen, to remit, &c. — are inseparable. 

Obs. 4. We have classed Wteber, again, back, among the particles 
which are always separable, and ttHber, against, among those which are 
always inseparable : as exceptions, we must however notice here the 
verb ttueber(jol<?n, which is inseparable when denoting to repeat, but se- 
parable when denoting to fetch back ; and the verb ttUberftaltCJI, to resist, 
or not to give way, which is separable. 

REMARKS ON THE INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 

§ 91. Before we conclude our account of the verb, it may 
be proper to consider the infinitive and participles in their 
use as verbal nouns (i. e. the infinitive as a substantive, and 
the participles as adjectives), and notice a few peculiarities 
in their import. 

The simple infinitive (not those formed by the aid of 
auxiliaries,) is often used as a substantive, answering to the 
English verbal noun in ing; as, ba$ £efen, the reading; bct$ 
SQkitien, the crying; fc>a5 ^lucfcen, the swearing, and is then 
declined like an ordinary substantive ; — bft$ £cfen, be$ 0c= 
fen$, bem £efen» t>a§ £efen ; but from the nature of its signifi- 
cation, it is unusual in the plural. It is often governed by 
prepositions; as, im (i.e. in bem — see § 30, Obs. 3.) %£tfr 



214? IMPORT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. [§91. 

ge^en, in the going away s vom V tekn 2lkuien, from crying 
much. It is mostly, as in the preceding examples, preceded 
by the definite article, often by other definitives, and some- 
times it is used without any definitive; as, ein aUcjemetne£ 

3au<%n, a general shouting ; ka$ giel meim$ ©ttebeng, the 

end of my striving ,• wit 6loj?em Oiefcen, with mere talking ; 
6i3 auf 2Bieberf^l;en, until our meeting again, 

Obs. 1. In many instances, these nouns not merely denote the action 
implied in the verb, but are used in a more extended signification, and 
in a few cases even in a concrete sense; as, ba$ ^CVfpxtd)Ct\, the pro- 
mise (and not merely the promising) ; ba$ 23er6re#en, the crime; bai 
2lu£fommetl, the sufficiency ; ba% ©C^retben, the writing, the letter. 

As may be seen from these examples, the German infinitive, used as a 
noun, is sometimes rendered in English by a usual substantive, and not 
by the verbal in ing. But the contrary is oftener the case, the English 
verbal in ing being frequently rendered by an ordinary substantive in 
German, and not by the infinitive noun : as, the beginning, OCV drifting ; 
the feeling, ba§ (Sefitfjl ; the (sense of) hearing, bd$ ©C&iJr ; — especially 
when used as a concrete noun ; — the drawing, bi? 3? tdbnung ; the paint- 
ing, bat ©ema&lbe (bat %titf)net\, b&$ tylafyten, denote merely the actions 
of drawing and of painting). When this verbal forms in English the first 
part of a compound, it is generally rendered in German by the root of 
the verb; as, writing-paper, <S$reibpapter; dancing-master, Xangmeiffer ; 
playing-cards, (Sptelfarten ; spinning-wheel, (&pinnvab, &c. 

Obs. 2. In phrases where this verbal noun is preceded by gum (i. e. gu 
bem), there is always the relation of means and end implied, the lead- 
ing word denoting the means to the action expressed by this verbal. 
And it is by this that it is mostly distinguished from the mere infinitive 
preceded by 311, in which this relation is seldom perceived. Thus, (&x 
%ab mtr JSviefe gum CefCU, he gave me letters for reading — that is, the 
letters were to serve to gratify the desire of reading j but, @r $ab mir 
2)riefe gu (efcn, he gave me letters to read, implies merely that he 
wanted me to read the letters; %$) \>abt ni$t£ gum (Scbreiben, I have 
nothing to write ivith ; — 3$ fyabt 3& nen nicbt* gU fcbtetbett, I have no- 
thing to write to you; ©toff gum Dfocbbenfetl, matter for reflection; 
— bet 2Dunfcb naci^gubenfen, the wish to reflect. Not unfrequently, 
however, this verbal with gum implies an uncommon effect, and is ren- 
dered in English by " enough," with an infinitive, or merely by an ad- 
verb; as, eine £t0e gum ©rfttcfen, a heat enough to suffocate one; ba$ 
ijt gum Xobtfacfren, that is enough to make one die with laughter ; @ie 
fl'nyen gum ©ntgUtfen, you sing delightfully. 

Obs. 3. We have observed before (§ 82, Obs. 2.) that the infinitive 






§ 92.] IMPORT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 2] 5 

after the auxiliary faffen, may be used passively, and that it is only from 
the context that one can know in what sense it must be taken. This 
is the case also when the infinitive is governed by fefjetl, to see, or frbren, 
to hear ; thus, $$ fafy tf)tt 6tnben, may mean, I saw him binding, or being 
bound; 3$ &0W i&N fllfen, I hear him calling, or being called; @r f/o'ft 
fl# gewe lo6en, he likes to hear himself praised, or (which sense however 
is less usual,) praising. After the verb f(pt\, to be, the infinitive has always 
a passive import ; as, @ r tft gU 6ebauem,Ae is to be pitied; ^)iefe£ ^Jferb 

iff gu Derfaufen,Mw toe is /o be sold; §iefe ©telle i|f fo ju rerfte&ert, 

this passage is to be understood thus ; ©te tfr ntrcjenbi? JU finben, sfo is 
nowhere to be found. 

§ 92. Both participles are frequently used as adjectives, 
and declined as such ; as, bd$ ttcBenbe ^tnb, the loving child ; 

bc& .qelie&te j?tnb, the beloved child-, bte untergefjen&e Sonne, 
the setting sun ; bte untevge^amjene ©onnc, the sun which has 
set. (See also the examples at Section 51, Obs. 5.) They are, 
like common adjectives, also used substantively (§ 52) ; as, 
etn @ter6enber, a dying man ; bte (Mte6te, the beloved; $>a$ 
5lltffaUenbe, what is striking ; bd§ 5£erbenbe, what is in the 
course of formation ; bd$ 2?eV9an#ene, what is past. (See 
also page 105.) That they are also susceptible of the 
degrees of comparison, has already been noticed. (§ 55, 
Obs. 3.) 

The participle present of nearly every verb may be used 
as a concrete adjective (§ 50), but not as an abstract ; that 
is, it cannot be joined with the verb fepn, to be. Thus we 
may say, ba§ Weinenbe ^inb, the crying child; but not ba$ 
8mb iff weinenb, the child is crying. (See also § 76, Obs. 3.) 
A considerable number, however, have extended their sig- 
nification, and assumed the nature of common adjectives, 
denoting a permanent quality, and not a transitory action : 
these of course, are used in abstract also ; as, ®icfc 5lnt- 
WOVt ift befviebi.qenb (mcberfdbla^enb), this answer is satisfac- 
tory {afflicting) ; ©etn Wi% iff 6etj?enb, his wit is sarcastic. 
Thus also rittjvenb, touching; veijjcnb, rapid; tafenb, raving; 
amitagenb, assuming ; which, as well as a great many others 
that must be learned from practice, are all real adjectives 
denoting a permanent quality. 



216 IMPORT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. [§ 93. 

The participle present is not used passively (as may partly 
be seen from §79, Obs. 2.) ; except when preceded by the 
particle ^u, to, in which case it has a passive import, with 
an implication of necessity or possibility ; as, bet* $U 6eft>d- 
fenbc ©a& the proposition to be proved ; ^OC^mxrefcvwfcef 
.0eit, highly-to-be-honoured Sir ; cine teidbt ^u iifcerfeljcnbe 
2i}aj}rtyett, a truth easily to be overlooked. 

Obs. The present participle joined with ju, it will be perceived, is 
analogous in its import to the infinitive governed by fepn (see § 91, 
Obs. 3.) ; and indeed some grammarians consider this form merely as an 
adjective, derived from the infinitive of that construction by the addi- 
tion of b (in the same manner as the adjective tttOVgenb, of tomorrow, is 
derived from ttlCVgen, tomorroiv). It has also this in common with the 
Infinitive, that in its composition with separable particles (§ 89), JU is 
inserted between the separable particle and the participle; as, bet* a&* 
3Uf#reibenbe 2)rief, the letter to be copied, from afrftyretkn, to copy. 

We must however observe, that this use of the present participle is 
rather formal ; almost like such English phrases as " the never-to-be- 
forgotten day," "this ever-to-be-lamented event;" and therefore rarely 
occurs in elegant writing, or in colloquial language ,• and upon the whole, 
its use is confined generally to compound verbs. It is, moreover, never 
employed but as a concrete adjective. See page 97. 

§ 93. Those past participles which in the conjugation can 
be combined with the auxiliary njevben (i. e. those of trans- 
i^ives or of verbs admitting of the passive voice — § 67), or 
with the auxiliary fa;n (i. e. those of neuter verbs denoting 
a change of place or state — § 76), may be used as adjectives 
in the signification which the}' have in such combination ; 
as, ber a6#efd)i(f te $0t|}e, the dispatched messenger ; bk §t- 

pjTitcfte 9?cfc, the plucked rose ; ba$ ^erfcvodbene @(a$, the 

broken glass; bet tt>e##elaufem ©dbulbtier, the absconded 
debtor ; bk tWWlfte SSllWte, the faded Jlower ; bd$ XWOflete 
(£ifenj the rusted iron. 

Obs. 1. As may be inferred from the above rule, the past participles 
cannot be used adjectively in the sense they have when combined with 
the auxiliary fmfcen. It must therefore be observed, 1.) That those of 
transitive verbs cannot be used as adjectives in an active sense (being 
then conjugated with fjaben) ; and we may say, ettlC atl5tt>enbt# gelernte 
3?ebe, a speech learned by heart; etne Qele&tter 9Kann, a learned (lite- 



§ 93.] IMPORT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 217 

rally, a taught) man; but not ettl Cjeternter WlaiUX ; for this participle, in 
reference to a man, can be used only in an active sense. 2.) That those 
of all such verbs as do net admit in their conjugation any other auxiliary 
than (jaben — namely, reflective verbs, and such neuter verbs as do not 
denote a change of state or place — can never be used adjectively. v 

There are, however, many exceptions to this rule— or, more correctly 
speaking, many participles have, in their use as adjectives, extended or 
changed their original signification, and become, as it were, different 
words from the kindred participles; and their import must therefore be 
learned from the dictionary. Thus, in the phrases, etne Derbiente ©tvafe, 
a merited punishment ; fin Derf#ttMegene$ ©efjetmntj?, a kept secret, ViX- 
bteitt and perfefrwieyen are the participles past of perbtenen, to deserve, 
and uerfcfWdyen, to conceal, not to reveal; but when we say, ettl PCV- 

bienter, ein perf#roieyener,3Jiamt, a deserving, a discreet, man, vexbknt 

and perfcfwiegeJl are used as adjectives independent of their participial 
import. Thus also, ein evfafjrnet 5)t antt, an experienced man (i. e. a man of 
experience); ein unu&erlegter (or unbebaC^tetOSJienfcfr, an inconsiderate 

man; ein yete&rteS 29u#, a learned book; ein t>erbroffener, un&e&olfe: 

nev 5ttube, a listless, helpless boy. Of the same description are all ad- 
jectives derived from past participles of reflective verbs, or of neuter 
verbs conjugated with fmbeit ; as, etn ^etvunfener, a drunken man; ettt 
Cjejtevte^ 2Bei6, an affected woman; etn entfcbloffenev 9J?Cnf#,-a resolute 
man ; etn iW&XXttS Camm, a strayed lamb ; etn 2?erltcbter, a man in love 
(being derived from the reflective verbs fid) betrtnfen, ftcb ^teren, &c.) ; 
— etn flU^ebientCV ©Of bflt, a soldier who has served out his time; etn Per* 

flwetfrtter STOenfcfc, a desperate man ; ein gcfcfemeic&elte$ ©ema&lbe, a 

flattering picture (ausbtenen, t>evgtt?etfeln, and fci^metC^eln being neuter 
verbs conjugated with fjaben); and a great many more, which must be 
learned by practice. 

Many other adjectives, with the form of a participle past, are evidently 
derived from nouns; as, gefttefelt unb gefpom t, booted and spurred; gt'-- 
jittet, civilized; geftebett, feathered (from the substantives @ttefel,<Sporn, 
©ttte, and ^ebev); which forms are quite analogous to such English de- 
rivatives as horned, wooded, kind-hearted, &c. 

Obs. 2. When dependent on the verb fomnien, to come, the past par- 
ticiples of verbs denoting locomotion are used in the sense of progres- 
sive action, like the participle present, and not in their usual import of 

completed action ; as, Xa fommt er gelaufen (gefprungen, Jjergef roe&en), 

there he comes running {leaping, sneaking along). 

Another peculiar use of this participle (in which it likewise does not 
denote completed action) is when employed as a kind of interjectional 
imperative — similar to such English expressions as silence! away with 
you! as, %\a% gema#t ! make way! aufgefctyaiKt ! mind! take care ! 

u 



218 THE ADVERB. [§ 94. 

ni#t gelarmt! no noise! bie #ute abgenommen! hats off \ On account 

of its force and animation, this form is often used by poets in lively ex- 
hortations : #vtf$ auf £ameraben ! ben SKawen ge^aumt! rouse ye, 

comrades! bridle the steed! — Schiller. 

Obs. 3. We may, lastly, mention also, that the infinitive and partici- 
ples, when used as verbal nouns, admit of compositions which the verb 
they are derived from does not. Thus, we say, ba$ ©rbfcefren, the earth- 
quake ; ba$ $ferberennen, the horse-race; ba$ Sfnbenfen, the remem- 
brance, the keepsake; &te frtegfu&fenben 3)?Ct#te, the belligerent powers ; 

ber wac&fja&enbe Dffaier, the officer on duty; eitt ptltcfctDergejfener 

'})iVnfd(?, an unprincipled person ; though we have no such compound 

verbs as anbenfen, f riegfii&ren, &c. 

THE ADVERB. 

§ 94. In the German, as in other languages, there are, 
comparative] y, few original or primitive adverbs ; by far the 
greatest number are derived from other words, chiefly ad- 
jectives. 

In English, adjectives are changed into adverbs by means 
of the affix ly, — rich, richly ; in German the uninflected ad- 
jective is used adverbially, without undergoing any change ; 
as, @ie ift fc()bn, urib fdntibt fit Oil, she is beautiful, and writes 
beautifully. — See also § 50, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 1. The termination Itdfr, which, etymologically, is the same with 
the English ly, is used to form adjectives, not only from substantives, (as, 
tayli#, daily; freiinb(tcf), friendly— from Sag, day ; $reuttb, friend,) 
but also from other -adjectives; as, ftif5tt#, sweetish; langli($t oblong; 
fletnlicij, petty ; rdt^lifi?, reddish; franfltcj), sickly; remltcf?, cleanly ; 
from the adjectives fiifj, sweet; lang, long, &c. The learner must there- 
fore not be misled by the English idiom, to suppose such derivatives to 
be mere adverbs ; they are adjectives, and, like other adjectives, they 
are used in the same form also as adverbs. 

There is, however, rather a considerable numoer of such derivatives 
in lt#, which are mere adverbs, and never used as adjectives; as, ficfrer; 
ltd?, surely; POrne&mltcf?, particularly ; h*euli#, faithfully ; fdwerlicfr, 
hardly; furjlid), lately; gnabiflltdj, graciously; fetflicf), boldly ; innig-- 
li$, sincerely, heartily ; gemetnigltcb, commonly ; 6efaiWtlt($, as is well 
known ; and many more, which must be left to practice *. 

* A few of them are distinguished from their primitive adverbs by referring 
to the copula, whilst the latter refer to the predicate (see 06s. 2.) ; as, (Jc f)an- 
bdte roeife (f(ug), he atted wisely (prudently); Grr fcfyroieg weie(id) (ffuglicfc), he 
wisely (prudently) was sileru. 



§ 95.] DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 219 

Obs. 2. Adjectives are often made to express an adverbial relation by 
joining them, in the genitive case, with the feminine substantive 2Bcife, 
manner, wise; as, ungerecbter $Be\ft, (or ungere#tem>etfe, as it is often 

written,) unjustly ; unfcefonnener 2Beife, inconsiderately. Such adverbial 
phrases, however, always relate to the copula, and not to the predi- 
cate * ; or, more accurately speaking, they modify the circumstances 
connected with the event, and not the manner of it, the latter being 
always denoted by the usual adverb; as, @ie frattgte ben (Spiegel btfyUU 

fam auf, she hung up the glass cautiously ; — (Sie fjangte ben (Spiegel be-. 

&Utfamer2Betfe auf, she, cautiously, hung up the glass; (§r t|t UnylUCfltc|) 

uerljeirathet, he is married unhappily ;— (fr if? unglifcflictjer 2Betfe per= 

foeiratfKt, he, unfortunately, is married; Q.X fam glUifltCl} an, he arrived 
safely;— @r fam glUdf ItC^er 2Beife an, he, fortunately, arrived. How- 
ever, when no ambiguity can arise, the simple adverb is frequently used 
also in reference to the copula; as, 3'cfj \ie$ jufdllio, (or jufalliger 
2Deife) hie ©C&rift gU ^aufe, I accidentally left the writing at home. 

Obs. 3. We will notice here also the following modes of formation of 
adverbs : 

1. Several adjectives are compounded with 3J?a£en, (the plural of 
3)?afe, measure,) in the same manner as the compounds with 2Betfe 
just mentioned (Obs. 2.); as, eintgermafen (or etntget 9)?a£en), in some 

measure; fofgenbermafjen, in the following manner; abgerebetermafen, 

in the manner agreed upon, &c. 

2. 92>etfe, manner, compounded with other substantives, often forms 
adverbs; in which it denotes by way of, or by ; as, cerfucfrttoetfe, by 
way of trial or experiment; trcpfenWCtjV, by drops; fteujwetfe, cross- 
wise ; ffUcftVCtfe, by pieces, piecemeal. 

3. The letter $, as a derivative termination, is, exclusively, adverbial ; 
and a great many adverbs are formed from a variety of words by an- 
nexing this letter f ; as, recDttf, on the right; Ut\H, on the left; flug$, 
immediately; anfattgtf, at first ; eilenbS, in haste; bftet*£, frequently ; 
ft itW'avt$, aside; 0\iWdVt$ t eastwards ; aHerbing^, certainly, by all means ; 
aUevfeitt, from all parts ; ux\ttKW§t%, on the way ; gleicbfa(l6, likewise, 
&c. &c. 

§ 95, Not only the positive, but also the comparative and 
superlative of adjectives are used adverbially, without un- 
dergoing any change. The superlative in this case is used 

* See note f , page 207. 

+ The greater part of these adverbs are in fact genitives of nouns,— this 
case being often used adverbially. (See the use of the genitive in the Syntax- ) 
From analogy, perhaps, this genitive inflection ($) was afterwards employed 
with other words as a mere adverbial annex. Compare this with § 45, Obs. 2. 

V 2 



220 DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. [§ 95. 

only in the form with am (page 109); as, @te fe()Vetbt fd/oner 

aU er, unb am fcfjbnfren v on un» alien, she writes more beau- 
tifully than he, and the most beautifully of us all. 

With the exception of oft, often (see page 110), adverbs 
that cannot be used also as adjectives have no degrees of 
comparison. (Indeed, very few of them, by the nature of 
their import, admit the idea of intension or remission.) The 
following, therefore, take their comparatives and superla- 
tives from adjectives of a kindred import: 

Positive, halb, soon, C^mp. efcer, Superl. am e^eften. 
ttJC&l, well, kffer, ant befren. 

gent, willingly, lieber, am tieSfrcn- 

Obs. 1. Some writers compare halt regularly — bdifbcr, am 6a(bC|ren. — 
The positive form of eficr (efre) is now used only as a conjunction, signi- 
fying before. — The positive of liebcr (Itfb) denotes dear, and is never 
used in the sense of ivillingly. — The adjective gut, good, which, as we 
have seen (page 110), is used as the positive of freffer, 6ffr, is, like other 
adjectives, employed also adverbially. — See § 98, Obs, 2. 

Obs. 2, The superlative with am always implies, as in the above ex- 
ample, a comparison. (See § 54, Obs.) The superlative of eminence is 
expressed, as with adjectives (§ 56, Obs. 2.), by adding some adverb 
of intension to the positive ; as, ©re fcfrreifrt Ut)Y (or au£erorbentlt#) 
fcfo'rin, she writes most beautifully. With many adverbs, however, this 
may be done also by the superlative taking e and being preceded by aufS 
orauf ba$; as, aii-fs artigfre, most politely; auf ba* an#ener)mjre, most 

agreeably. 

The uninflected superlative, too, is sometimes used to express the su- 
perlative of eminence; as, rubmltcfrjr, most laudably, most gloriously; 
fcierlirf)(r, most solemnly ; inntgft, most heartily; gerjOffattlfr, most obe- 
diently, &c. &c. Particular regard must, however, be had to usage ,• as 
neither of the two last-mentioned forms of the superlative is used ex- 
tensively, especially the uninflected form. 

The following superlative forms must be considered as distinct ad- 
verbs, having assumed a particular modification of their kindred superla- 
tives: — \un&$, lately; aufterfr, or fc'ricbjr, extremely, highly; latlylf, long 
ago; lanyftenl, at the longest; (offt(r£II$, at the utmost; er)e|rfn$, or 
nacflfren^, one of these days; millbefh'ltf, or treniyffen^, at least; mcu 
IfOIl 5, for the most part, mostly ; fpateftenS, at the latest ; and perhaps 
a few others. 

Obs. 3. As adverbs denoting degrees of intension, we may notice here, 



$-96.] ADVERBS OF DIRECTION. 221 

Vkl, much ; fe&r, very; and gar, very, exceedingly. — $iel, before compa- 
ratives,and before JU, too, answers to the English much ; as, v\t\ gefd&TOin-* 
ber, much quicker ; Viet JU jtarf, wzwc/e £00 strong. When modifying a verb 
it denotes extension in time, but not intenseness ; and the English much 
must, in the latter import, be translated by fehr. Thus, He has suffered 
much, may import either that his sufferings were long, or that they Were 
intense; in the former case, much is rendered by ciel; in the latter, by 
feijr. Hence, when joined to a participle past used adjectively — as, I was 
much surprised, pleased, offended, &c. — much is always rendered by fehr. 

©ehl'and gar both denote a high degree of intensity ; as, tin fehr — or 
gar — gelehrter 5)?antt, a very learned man. However, gar addresses itself 
rather to the imagination, implying intensity beyond what could, or would, 
be readily conceived ; and is, consequently, not used in cases where the 
degree of intensity can easily be judged of. Thus, we may say, 25a5 J}anb 
iff QCLt Wt'lt DOIT hter, that country is very (or extremely) far from here ; 
2>ie ®eif t|? gar ttef, the sea is very deep ; but we should say, (?r trchnt 
fefjr (but not gar) Mt) kct mtr, he lives very near to me; 2)tefd -Baffcr 
iff fe&r (not gar) ffi$J?j this xvater is very shallow. Nor could very be 
rendered by gar in such expressions as, very fit, very white, very exact, 
or in any other phrase expressive of a degree of intensity readily per- 
ceived. 

®at JU denotes a great degree of excess; as, gar JU Did, overmuch ; 
gar gll t&etter, dear beyond all reason. — See also § 99. 

(Bar sometimes denotes even; in which import it is mostly compounded 

with fo (fogar*); as, (5r rceinte gar, or fcgar, he even cried. 

ADVERBS OF DIRECTION. 

§ 96. In describing motion or direction, the German 
language carefully distinguishes the direction towards the 
speaker from the opposite direction — or, more accurately- 
speaking, our viewing a motion in the direction "whence it 
comes, from our viewing it in the direction whither it goes : 
the former is expressed by l)i\, hither, the latter by fyin, 
thither; as, 

2?0H ber @CC her blitv bCX SBlt\b,from the sea (hither) the wind blew ; 

£ommt alle 311 mtr her, come all hither to me; ben gangen 2Beg her, all 

the way hither ;— @ehe JU betnem 2?ruber btn,go(^fo?r) fo^owr brother; 

@te famen oon Often her, unb jogen na# SBeften htn, *% came from the 



* This compound must not be confounded with fo gar (written separately), 
which phrase denotes so very; as, 25n$ ift fo flflt tifrd nicfyt, Ma* is wo/ *o very bad. 

u 3 



222 ADVERBS OF DIRECTION. [§ 96. 

East, and went towards the West; (Sr fegelte langS bCX £Ufle bin, £<? 
nailed along the coast. 

Nearly all the words used as separable particles (§§ 89 
and 90) may be compounded with (jet 4 or |)m, in order to 
denote a motion to or from the speaker. It must, however, 
be observed in this respect, that the particles ab, an, auf, 
aav, Cht, ti6cr, um, tmter, and £u, may be joined with either ; 
Bet, nicber, and VQY, only with tyw ; and fc>arc() and ttJe#, only 
with l;in # . 
Thus, we should say, ©chief en 6ie iiiir bat papier fcerauf, (6crunter, 

h?re\t\, fyevtibCf, &c.\ se7id me up (down, in, over, &c.) the paper ; %tf) 

fcbitfe Sfwen ^» papier fcinauf (fcinunter, lutein, biniiber, &c), /s<?w</ 

3^ozf Z(!/j (down, in, over, &c.) the paper ; JlOttimen <2>ie fcerbet, cowe wear 

(hither); ba§ gange X&al binbiircbt, «# ^<? valley through ; (tmvfgt 

DCn frier ! away from here. — See also the examples at page 224. 

In the preceding compounds fjer and Jjin form the first 
component part, in most others they form the second, — See 
Obs. 3, and the Table, page 224. 

Obs. I; In narrating events at which we were not present, her and fym 
are used with reference to the spot from which we, in mind, view the 
event. Thus, we should say, (5m 3)?atrcfe fief rem 9J?aire herab, unb 
wave in ben ©cbiffsvaum feinab befallen, \venn,&c, a sailor fell (doivn) 

from the mast, and would have fallen (down) into the hold, if, &c. ; for 
though the narrator had not been present at the event, he would in 
mind identify himself with the spectators of it on the deck I, who viewed 
the fail from the mast in the direction towards them, and that into the 
hold, in the direction away from them. 

Obs. 2. As her and hin, by the nature of their import, relate only to- 
specified locality, they bear, in such cases as the above compounds, some 
analogy to a definitive, inasmuch as they refer the indefinite local direc- 
tion, denoted by the second component, to a definite place. Thus, @f; 
hen (5te ntcbt atl*s denotes, do not go out (i. e. stay at home); but @ef)en 
<5ie lUCfttfcinaU*, signifies, do not go old of the room (where the speaker is); 

* The dictionaries have also the compound fyertmtcfy, which is now hardly 
ever used. 

f Very frequently the simple particles (bitrd) and u>eg) are now used instead 
of these compounds. 

The adverb fyinroeg must not be confounded with the substantive Sjznweq, 
the way thither : the former, like most compound adverbs (§ 18), has the ac- 
cent on the last component part, the latter on the first. 

\ Compare this with note p. 132. 



§ 96.] ADVERBS OF DIRECTION. 223 

$er# auf, up-hill:— ben 2?er$ Jjtnauf, up the hill. Except in afew figura- 
tive expressions, in which the locality remains indefinite; as, f)tTau£ fO; 
bern, to challenge ; fidb ftfttlb raffen, to condescend, &c. 

Ofo. 3. With regard to the import of fjer and &in, we add the follow- 
ing remarks : — 1.) J^ev is used in the sense of along when referring, not, 
as usual, to the place whither an object moves, but to the position of 
one object with regard to another object moving in the same direction; 
as, SQDir tVtefren ben $eillb DOr Ull3 fjer, we drove the enemy along before 
us; @etne®d)Utbner fmb tmmev fctntev t&m fyX, his creditors are always 
at his heels ; @r Uef ncfceit bem StStytW foer, he ran along at the side of the 
carriage. 2.) £)in is sometimes used in the sense of down, and sometimes 
in that oUost or gone; as, £eye e$ fym, lay it doivn; 9)?eme $Uf)e iff bill, 
?«j/ £><?ac<? is gone ; fjin if? bin, tMatf is /os£ is /os/. 3.) The expression bin 
linb \)CX (or bin unb Wtebfr) is often Used in the sense of here andthere; 
also in that of to and fro. 4.) When applied to time, fret* is used in re- 
ference to past time continued to the present moment ; but the course 
or extent of time not limited by the present moment is denoted by hin ; 
as, etnige Sage bcr, for some days past ; e5 if? nictyt lange fter, it is not 
long since; hither, hitherto ;— a Auf vku %a\)re bin wax fein ©liicf ger= 

trb'rt, his happiness was destroyed for many years ; fiinftlQ fetn, in future; 

fein 2?ru&er, ber bi$ babin yefchroiegen batte, &c, to brother, who till then 

had remained silent, fyc. 5.) These particles generally change their usual 
meaning when annexed (seldom when prefixed) to prepositions; as, DOt's 
&tn, jurt now ; feitfjer, latterly ; nacbber (or bmtacb), afterwards ; uotv 
bCV, before; umber, about (different from ftmim, which denotes round*); 
oftneftin, besides ; and several others, which must be learned from the 
dictionary. 

The above adverbs imply motion or direction towards a 
place; several of these have corresponding adverbs denoting 
locality without any reference to direction or motion, — that 
is, they denote the mere scene of an action or state, and bear 
the same analogy to the former adverbs as in English in bears 
to into; as will be seen from the following Table of them : — 

* If round implies an inclosing on all sides, it is rendered by (jemm on ly ; 
otherwise (itnum or fyerutri is used, according as the motion Is viewed by the 
speaker ; as, Q3er)e urn bic (ftfe f)inum, ba i ft fcie £nu$tf)i'tr, go round the corner, 
the housedoor is there ; (fr n?irb gtetrt) urn Me (ftfe (jeuitm fonmien, he xvlll come di- 
rectly round the corner. 



224? ADVERBS OF DIRECTION. [§ 96. 

The relation in. The relation into. ~ 

WO, where; WOhtn, whither. 

bier, here; her or hiet'her, hither. 

* au£en, brauften, without; fjevau5\ hinau$, cm*. 

* innen, brinnen, within; herein, ^tnetn, m. 
*oben, broben, above; herauf, hinauf, w^. 

, unten, brunten,**.,. |S? ?n ^|^- 

DCm, ira the front or forepart; f)tXVM, forth, 

h i n te n , ^zW ; & t n t e r f, down, back. 

Jbrii&cn, o« ^e o^er «&; (uniiber, over. 

Examples. 

2Bo ift er? where is he?— 2Bo&in flatten @te t&n? or wo fefcicften 

<5te tfM bin ? whither did you send him? ^)0Xt (or ba) reitet CV, there he 
rides; — 25ort&in (bdbin) ritt er, or £)0tt (ba) ritt ex &m§, that wag he 

rode ; ^cb gehe in ben Garten; twine v&cbwejler ajng fo eben bin (not 

bort), fie erwartet ttticb; bCVt, / am going into the garden ; my sister went 
there just now, she expects me there ; 2>er 3unge \\t Obett, ge&e btnailf 

unb fage ihm bevunter (frerab) $u fommen, the boy is above, go up and 
tell him to come down; ®e(j hinunter (frinab) unb ftefi trer unten ift, go 

down and see who is below; 2Ber ift braufen VOX ber X(jUr? who is out- 
side the door? ©eh ntcfot hinein, e£ ift niemanb brinnen, do not go in, 

there is no one within; 2Xt$ $au» tjt VOXtl Wit Unb hinten alt, the 
house is new in front and old at back. 

Obs. 4. We add the following remarks: — 

1.) The adverbs WO, bit, and hter, have, like the corresponding particles 
in English, analogous adverbs denoting the origin of a motion j — which 
are, however, in German always preceded by the preposition con, from, 
— namely, P0J1 wannen, whence ; DOtt batmen, from thence ; VOtl (unnctl, 

* These compounds are contractions of bav nujjen, there without, bat innen, 
&c, and are therefore distinguished from their primitives, augen, innen, &c, 
both by being more demonstrative (implying a pointing, as it were, at the 
place), and by precluding the presence of the speaker. 

f This word is hardly ever used in good German as an adverb, but only as 
a preposition denoting behind. 

\ The primitive, iifcen, is obsolete. In homely language one also uses fyiifren, 
this side; and fyaufjen (for fjier rtujkn), here without. 

§ Jper and t)in are, as in the above examples, often separated when com- 
pounded with roo, tut, bort, or fyter, and other words are inserted between. Some 
authors then join f)in and fjer with the verb in all those cases where the sepa- 
rable particles would be joined with it (§ S9) ; as, 2Qo fynfcen @ie u)n fnnge* 
fd)tcft (for f>ill gejtyicft) ? where have you sent him to ? SRJo fott id) eg fyemefymen 
(for fyex nefymen) ? where shall I take it from ? 



§ 97.] ADVERBS OF TIME. 225 

hence; as, $on wannett (or trover) fommen @ie? whence (or from where) 
do you come? ©tfy? POtl frtntten, go hence, &c. 

2.) The difference between often, open, and the separable particle 
auf (§ 89) when signifying open, bears some analogy to that of cbett 
and |)tnatlf; namely, offen denotes the mere state, whilst atlf refers 
to the effecting of that state ; as, 3$ fanb bie Xbilt* Offen, / found 
the door open;—%& kVCld) bk Xf)Ur ailf, JT 6ro£<? Me tfoor open. An 
analogous difference exists between ba, there, and the separable particle 
bat, there, forth ; and between bahetttt, at home, and the separable particle 
£eim, home (see $ 89, Ob$. 4.) ; ba and bahetm implying rest, bat and 
hettlt motion, or direction to ; as, ba fTefren, or bflf?ef)en, to stand there ; 

ba$ 2)afepn, ^<? existence ; babeim ft|en, fo *& atf home ;— bavj?el(en, fo 

put forth, exhibit; fjetrttfe()Ven, fo return home. 

Lastly, we may remark here, that rco and ba are used also in reference 
to time, the former in the sense otwhen, the latter in the sense both of 
when and then ; as, 3u eilier %i\X. WO (or ba) icf) Qlaufcte, &c, at a time 

when I thought, &c ; @r gab em 3ei^en, ba b'ffhete fi'cb eine S&iir, ttnb, 

&c, he gave a sign, when (or and then) a door opened, and,&c. Like seve- 
ral other adverbs, WO and ba are used also as conjunctions — which see. 

ADVERBS OF TIME. 

§97. Of this class we shall notice only the following ad- 
verbs : 

Satin * and bamal^j then. — The former implies a sequel 
to another event, and may refer both to past and future 
time ; the latter refers to definite past time only ; as, (£r 

\vixb d emf* 6eveuen, after bann (not bamaB) unvb e$ 311 fpat 

fet;n, he will repent it one day, but then it mil be too late ,• 

(£r rcavtete 6t$ jte fam, bann #1113 er n?eq, he waited until she 

came, and then he went away ; 3cf) Wat bamaB ttOCf) i\X\ j?inb, 
/ was then yet a child. 

2$ami, when, is used in reference to an unknown part of 
time ; as, ££amt With er fommen? when will he come? 

2Benn, which was formerly employed also in the sense of 
Wann, is now, more generally, employed only as a conjunc- 
tion denoting if, or when.-^See the Conjunctions f. 

* This word must not be confounded with benn, which will be explained 
among the Conjunctions. 

f Adelung, indeed, considers the form nxwn as a mere provincial pecu- 
liarity ; and asserts that, except in the phrase bann unb rocmn, now and then, 
roenn is the only correct form, whether used as an adverb or conjunction. 
However, recent usage has confined i»enn more to the conjunctional import. 



226 ADVERBS OF TIME. [§ 97- 

3k, jtemal^, and immer, ever, — Jfc an d jemal^ denote ever, 
at any one point of time; and immer, ever, always ; as, ,0a6cn 
©te t^H \t (or jemal3) #efei)CH? have you ever seen him ? auf 
immer, for ever. ^mmvc (like toujours in French) is used 
also in the sense of safely, without hesitation ; as, @ie ton- 

nen ba$ immet tl)un, #ok ?w«j/ s«/% do that ,• ^Ha^cn ©te e$ 

immer, venture it without hesitation. 

The negatives of the preceding adverbs are, me, Vliemal^, 
and nimmer, never, at no time. — See § 99. 

06s. 1. When the English ever denotes merely an unlimited degree of 
Intension or extent, and not time, it is rendered variously in German ; 
namely, when compounded or joined with any of those words which may 
be used also as interrogatives (in which case ever may be preceded by 
so ; as, whoever or whosoever, whenever, wherever,, &c.) it is translated 
by and), or immer, or by both these words; as, Whoever he may he, twr 

cv aud) (or wer er immer, or mv er audb immer) fei;n mag; How rich 
soever you may be, fo reid? ©ie ciud) immer fepn m'ogen. It is in such 
cases sometimes rendered also by nur or nur immer; as, Wherever I 
come, wo \d) nur (or nur immer) bin fomme. But more generally nur, 
in such instances, answers to the English as ever, implying the utmost 
degree possible * ; as, @o gcfcf)tt>inb i$ nur fonnte, as quickly as ever I 
could; ©0 Ciel (£>te nur immer pollen, as much as ever you like. 

Ever so is mostly rendered by t\V(5) fo, or dud) nptf) fo; as, Let him 

be ever so learned, er mag noc& fo (or and? nod) fo) gele&rt fepn ; If 1 

rise ever so early, wenn tdb aUC|> nC$ fo frU& iUlf|?e&e. 

(Btimal, dnfi, cwc?. — The former, like the corresponding 
once in English, is used both as a numeral (see § 56, Obs. 2.) 
and as an adverb of time, equivalent to etnjt, once, at some 
particular time ; as, 3$ Werfce it'll chimal (or ehlff) Wieber 
fe(?en, / shall see him one day again ; (£$ tt?ar chimal etn 
R6t\i$, there was once a king. 

06s. 2. @inmat has several other significations: — 1.) for once, cr 
contrary to the habitual way ; and when preceded by trieber, it implies 
the happening after a long interval; as, @r if? fjeute etnmal fe&r ge* 
fptadf?ig, //<? is today, for once, very talkative ; — ttneber einmaT would im- 
ply, that he has been so occasionally before. 2.) at last ; in which im- 
port it is frequently preceded by enbltd^ ; as, (5#tt?eigen @ie boch einmal, 

* In some other cases, too, nut imports possibly ; as, 20ie fonnen ©ie nur fi> 
fiwufam fei)n ? Aow can yow possibly be so cruel ? 



§ 97.] ADVERBS OF TIME. 227 

now do be silent; 2Berbttt @ie einmal ailf&bren? «»# #ow a£ &?;?g//i (or 
ewr) cease ? tfomtnit bU enblid) einmal? do^ow come a£ /a^f 3.) Just, 

merely; as, Caufe einmal jum S^ac^bar fciniifrer, ,/w** r«» over to the 

neighbour. 4.) It implies that arguing is of no use, or that affairs can no 
more be changed; in which import it is generally preceded by mm • as, 
2)a$ i|r einmaf (or nun einmal) Corbet, that is now past [and cannot be 
helped]; @r ifr mm einmal %1)t 25tllber, A<? is your brother [and so you 
must make the best of it}. — Stficfyt einmal often denotes not so much as; 
as, @r f\mn ni#t einmal lefen,/^ cannot so much as read. 

The adverbs jef)t, tian, 1lUlimcj)r, and QtQtm'tiXtifo all de- 
note present time. The first two are in many instances used 
indiscriminately ; as, 2>a£ ift je$t (or mm) h& 30?obc, this is 

now the fashion ; (£r fbrmte mm (or jc$t) fdbon ^icr fei;n, he 

might be here by this time. However, when implying an 
expected change, or ceasing of the present state, jegt alone 
is used. On the other hand, when the present state, or event, 
is considered as the consequence of that preceding it, mm 
seems preferable ; as, 

#ur je£t (not mm) mag e£ genua. fejW,/or the present it maybe 

enough; Romm in einer <Stunbe nuebev, ieh bin je£t befc^aftiat, come 

again an hour hence, I am engaged now ; 2)l» je$t t)&bt icll gefd^Wie- 

geii a6er nun barf id) es nicbt lanaer, I have been silent till now, but 
I must no longer be so • eie rrollten nicnt bb'ven, nun miiffen <§ie bafiiv 

feiben, you would not hear, now you must suffer for it *. 

Obs. 3. When the English now is used as a connective, (for instance, 
'* If this be true, he is guilty; now this is true," &c. ; or, " Now there 
lived in the same town a man who," &c) it must be rendered by nun 
exclusively. 

$ltn answers to the English ivellin such expressions as 9?un, fo fep e$, 
well, be it then; nun, nun! well, well/ — In its connective import, nun 
is often placed in the middle of a phrase, and is then not translated in 

English; as, tyig icb i&m ba§ nun fo jeiaen wolfte, fpvana er auf, {iveli 

or now) when I was going to show him that, he jumped up. 

3?tttttttet)r, which compound is not frequently used, de- 
notes present time as distinct from the past, and as con- 

* Present time may be considered either as the end of past time, and, con- 
sequently, as distinct from the future only ; or as the beginning of the future, 
and distinct only from the past. In the above discrimination, nun appears to 
imply the latter, jdjt the former, description of present time. This view re- 
ceives some corroboration from the fact, that the English yet (etymologically 
the same word with jefjt) denotes a continuation of a previous state, with the 
implied expectation of that state being changed. 



228 ADVERBS OF TIME. [§ 97. 

tinning for some time after * ; as, IDcis iff muitttetjr ubllit] 
CiUv bcr Wlobe, that is now quite out cf fashion ; $£a$ £a&' id) 
mtlime&r" 3« &0(fen ? what have I now (henceforth) to hope P 

©e$ennwrti#, at present, implies an extended portion of 
time, and is therefore not used in reference to the present 
moment merely. Thus, we may say, (?r le6t gegenwaftig (or 
;e§t) aitf bent Canbe, he lives at present in the country ,• — but 
we must say, g$ tfj je§t (not QiftZXiXQ'ffixQ) 9Jfttta#, it is now 
noon, ©c^cnwatti.0 is always used in reference to actually 
present time, and cannot be joined with past tenses ; though 
je0t, mm, and mtnmeljr may. Thus, in narrative we may 

say, 3cgt (or nun, but not #e#etm>avtt#) Fam bic 9ieil;e an 
tuicfe, woto azme ?72?/ tur?if. 

grj?, fdbon, ttO#. — (it[t denotes frst ,* fcf)0n, already; and 
riocf), 5^7Z, 3/^, or as yet : — 

£"dren @te mtdf) en? an,/rs* £<?ar wze>; (5$ lit fffccn gefc&e&eit, it is al- 
ready done; 3ireifeln @ie nod} (nod? tmmcr)? cfo ?/ok *## (<?a<?rc ^/) 
doubt? D?0C|? ifetp er ntd)t$ bacott, asj/etf he knows nothing of it. 

These adverbs have, however, several other meanings : — 
(?rft denotes also not till, only or but ; in which sense it is 
the counterpart of fc&Ottj which often signifies as early as, as 
far back as, or even (as early as) ; as, 

%$ WCVbe moryen crft abveifen, I shall not depart till tomorrow ; gcfj 
ircroe morgcn fcfcOtt abretfttl, Jsfo// tfqoar* as early as tomorrow; <&ic 

fam oorgej!crn fd&cn juriicf, nieine 9?t#te erf? fytutt, she returned (as 

early as) the day before yesterday > my niece only today ; (5r jdgte flf? 
5tnabe fdfron tueleit -J)?Ut5, /*£ showed great courage even as a boy ; Qieft 

£unf? war f$on im neunten 3fa&tDun&ert frefannt, #*« «?•* was ^oto?! 

ei?<?« (or as/a?- 6«c/<: as) in the ninth century. 

dlod) often implies before the end or conclusion, and is 
rendered by yet, even, or at length ; but sometimes it can- 
not be translated into English ; as, 

@ie muffon ben 35rief nocfo abfc&veifren, ^ ?>««* ?/<?* copy the letter 
(i. e. before you have done with it) ; %d) muf? ^CUte no# etnett 2>0ttll 

* This compound import is expressed by the component parts of nunmefjr;— 
nun denoting the present as the beginning of the following time (see the pre- 
ceding note), and mefyr its protraction. 

f The use of these adverbs with past tenses is analogous to that of the pre- 
sent tense for past events. — See Obs. p. 152. 



§97.], ADVERBS OF TIME. 229 

abf(I)tCfen, I must dispatch a messenger today— ov this very day (in 
the latter import fit'Ute has the verbal accent, from its implying a kind 
of antithesis *) ; @ie ttCrbett n0# alle? vetxafyttt, you will af last betray 

everything; dlad) bem ^IbenbefTen tarn 3^r better nod) hilt, unb wit 

fpielten nod) 3B^if?, a/fer supper your cousin came there, and we played 
at whist. — In the last two clauses n0$ implies before we broke up, or in 
Hie course of the evening. 

Obs. 4. These adverbs are frequently used in German, when in En- 
glish the modification conveyed by them is thought unnecessary to be 
expressed. Thus very often fdfron and its negative no# X\\$)t,notyet, do 
not imply any unusual earliness or lateness of the occurrence, but merely 
that the event had been expected; in which case these adverbs remain 
untranslated in English; as, 25riefe aus Ungam X)0tt1 erften 3Kai ttltiben, 
baj? ber flaifer fdOon (or nod) nid)t) na# 2Bien iwxM gefefjrt fep, letters 

from Hungary of the 1st of May state that the emperor had (or had not) 
returned to Vienna, — where fd)0tt and nod) ntcfyt imply merely that his re- 
turn had been expected. Thus also in questions where fdj)0n is, however, 
rendered by yet ; as, £aBett (gie n$ve $ferbe fc&Otl twf'auft? have you 
sold your horses yet? in which sentence fd) On, as well as the correspond- 
ing word yet, unless pronounced emphatically, merely imply that the 
horses were to be sold. 

In the same manner nod) often implies that an action or state is a con- 
tinuation.; as, 3d) werbe bie nature 2Bod)e nod) fner bleiben, I shall re- 
main here another wee/c,— implying that I had already been staying some 
time. 

Gttft, in the sense of first, is likewise often without an equivalent in 
English ; as, @r befann fi# ntdjt erjt lange, ta tfid rao£ /o«g deliberate. 

Obs. 5. We add the following remarks regarding some other mean- 
ings of the above adverbs : — 

I. @rf? and nod) form often a kind of connective ; evjf denoting as 
yet only, or no more, no further, and implying that others or more are to 
follow f ; whilst nod), on the other hand, implies addition to what lias 
preceded^, and is rendered by more, others, further, or moreover; as, 3"d) 

^afce erft gwei 29riefc gefd)rieben, id) mu£roenigffen£ nod) bret fcfcmfren, 

I have written (as yet) only two letters, I must write at least three more ; 

<5ie fcaben eflt bat 9leu£ere g«fe&en, nun will id) 3(jnen nod) ba» 3'nnere 

* The phrase nod) etnen 58otf)en may further signify also another messenger 
(see the first remark of Obs. 5.) ; but then nod) has the verbal accent. 

+ By this implication erft seems to retain something of its ordinal import, 
and is thereby distinguished from nur, which is merely restrictive ; as, 2)n id) 
itidjt Sett finite, fo fdjriefc id) nut (not erft) Jiuei iBrtefe, as I had no time I wrote 
only two letters. 

\ Probably because continuation, the proper import of nod), involves ad- 
dition. 

X 



230 THE ADVERBS jft, WD% £>0C&. [§ 98. 

jCi^ett, j/ow have (as yet) seen only the exterior, now I will show you the 
interior also; Wit f?n& erjt am %U§C be£ 2?etge6, we are o% (no furthet 

than) at the foot of the mountain; (St ga&lte alle£, unb bant'te un$ nod?, 

fo paid for everything, and thanked us besides ; nod} einmal, once more. 

2. (5r|? and no# are sometimes indiscriminately used in the sense of 
as lately as, or it was but; as, 3$ fa& tfm nod) (or erf?) geffew, it was but 
yesterday that I saw him. However, if implying the idea of not before 
that time, CVft exclusively must be used. 

S. Crrfr and fdbcn are sometimes used as a kind of comparative, — a 
comparing the effect of a lesser cause with that of one more powerful, — 
f$on implying the former, erjf the latter; as, tgcfeOtt bet ©aulettfiang 

erreyte meine S9e«?un&erung; aber trie erftaunte tdb ertf,ai$ i# in bm 

Xempel tfflt, erera ?Ae colonnade had excited my admiration; but how asto- 
nished was I when I entered the temple; 2£emt @ie ficf> fcfron 6efc|?We? 
ven, BM$ foil id) etjf fagetl, if even you complain, what shall I say ,-^-i. e. 
/zozy 7»ac£ Tftore have I reason to do so. 

4. In reference to an hypothesis, erj? answers to once ; as, 2Bentt id) 

erfr meine ©dwlben frejcWt fcafre, bann will i# micf) freuen, wto J 

have once paid my debts, I shall rejoice. 

5. ©cfron often implies that there is no occasion for any uneasiness 
or impatience, or for any interference; and may be rendered in English 
by never mind, or leave it alone, or by some similar phrase ; as, (3ie Wirb 
f$on fommen, she will come, never mind, or depend 2ipon it; (5f Wltb 
fid) fdbon fjelfen,/2<? will help himself, leave him alone for that. Thus also, 
a person who is impatiently called would answer, ^d) fomme fd>On, / 
am coming, — implying, you need not call any more. So also fd)QV. $Ut, 
very well (you need not say anything f lather about it). 

6. Not unfrequently nod) is used in stating collateral circumstances, 
in order to bring to a person's recollection something which he had for- 
gotten. Thus, for instance, in order to bring to a person's recollection 
that a book had been returned to him, one would say, (&ie WCllten nod) 
eben aufge&en, al» id) 3&ncn ba$ $ud) btatf)te,you were just going out 

vchen I brought you the book. 

§ 98. The adverbs VO C^l, jrt, and frodf) deserve particular 
notice, from their implying several minute shades of modi- 
fication; which, in some instances, can be rendered in En- 
glish only by very homely expressions: — 

vBJoMj well, (see Obs. 2.) frequently implies uncertainty, 
doubt, or conjecture, and may be rendered in English by 
/ dare say, perhaps ; and in questions by / wonder * ; as, 

* In questions n>of)( refers to the answer expected,— implying, that this cap 
be but mere conjecture. 



$■98.] THE ADVERBS jfl, Wdi)i, fc>OC&. 231 

gr ift WOtjl ttic&t JU |>aufe, /ze z>, I dare say, not at home ; 
gr tjl iilcfrt fo fcumnt al$ @ie roo&l #lau6en, ^ if* wo/ 50 stupid 
as you perhaps think him to be ; ¥Bci$ nta# WJO&t in biefctlt 
^afldben fepn ? what may be in this casket, I wonder t 

Obs. 1. At the beginning of a sentence, or when opposed to a clause 
beginning with after, but, WO&l denotes to be sure, or indeed ; as, 2Bof)f 
tjat fie .9?e$t, t»enn fte fagt, baf , &c, fo be sure she is right in saying that, 
&c. ; @$ ift W0${ tfKUer, aber gut, it is indeed dear, but good. — In the ex- 
pression, icjj rtlb'c^te if Ofjl, I should like, trofjl implies that it is an idle or 
hopeless wish ; as, $# tt10#te WO^I etn JTontg feptl, 1 should like to be a 



Obs. 2. Like most adjectives, gut, good, is used also adverbially ; so 
that the English adverb well may, in a great many instances, be rendered 
indifferently by gu tor tt>cf)l; as, 2)a5 fttngt gut (or W0f)l), this sounds 
well; dx hat fid) yUt (or WO&I) fcetragett, ^ /*«s behaved well; %a§ 
ftekt t&m W0$l (or gut), Maf/te Aim well; Q£$ tfr ifjm W0f>I(or gUt)gf; 
Jungetl,^ Aas succeeded well. Yet, in most instances, one or the other is 
preferred by usage. Thus, when referring to skill, gut is used exclusively ; 
as, @r fc&retfct, (ewt, tan^t, &c, fe&r gut, he writes, learns, dances, &c, 
wry wW/. On the other hand, rocf)[ alone is used when referring to our 
health, feelings, or sensations j as,3J?ir t|r ntd^t M$l (not gut), Jam wo* 
we//; <§r beflUbet fid) W$l,he is well; Men®k WCfyl 1 farewell/ 2)a^ 
t^JUt mtr W0&(, ^fltf does me good. In most other cases, however, it must 
be learnt from practice which of the two is more in use. 

The affirmative particle \a (§ 99.) denotes sometimes nay, 
yea ,• and, in imperatives, be sure ; as, 
2?ie(e $aufer, \a gan^e @traf?en, brannten, many houses, nay whole 

streets, were on fire; ^Otttttten @te \a frU6, be sure to come early. 

Very frequently, however, it has a conjunctional import, 
implying that one proposition is an obvious cause, motive, 
or proof, of another; and may be rendered by you know, 
you see, or surely ; as, 

Wix buffeti <&te e$ fagen, i# bin \a 3f>r $mmb, to me you may tell 
it, I am, you know, your friend; 2Barten @ie nocf), @ie fe&en )a bag e5 
regnet, wait yet a while, you see surely (or c?o */oz* not see) that it rains; 

<&x muf txant fepn, er fie&t ja fe&r blajj aus, he must belli, he looks 

very pale you see. 

Sometimes ja denotes surprise ; or rather, it refers to an unknown 
cause, which we wish to learn; as, @te ftnb \a fceutC ftyx lltjitg, why, 
you are uncommonly merry today \ 

x2 



232 THE ADVERBS ja, Woty, fodfr. [§ 98* 

^>odo,yet, nevertheless*; that is, contrary to what might 
have been supposed from the preceding proposition; as ? 
©ie (jaben e3 i^m vtxfyxotbin, rnib bod) #c6en ®ie e$ i&m ntdbt, 

you have promised it him, and yet you do not give it to him. 

If one of such contradictory propositions is put either im- 
peratively or interrogatively, bod), which is then joined with 
the other, is rendered by you know, or surely ; as, ©ebcn ©tfc 
i^m bct$, (or wamm $e6en ©ie itytn ba§ tiiebt?) ©ie tyc&w t$ 
ijjttt bod) (or ja, — see above) VW\p?odt)ZX\, give it to him, (or 
why do you not give it to him ?) you know you have promised 
it him. Hence bod) often implies merely surprise, — or, in 
other words, that something is contrary to custom and the 
habitual way, and is rendered by to be sure, or surely ; as> 
Wk biefe £ettte bocf) #to6 ftnb, how rude these people are, to be 
sure f. 

It is, however, more generally used either to denote soli- 
citude or curiosity, or to strengthen expressions of that na- 
ture ; and may often be rendered by some such expression 
as, I pray, I hope, I wish, I wonder, surely, &c. ; as, 

2Barten ©ie bo#, wait, I pray ; @r wax bed) ni#t b'cfe 3 he was not 
angry, I hope ; £>atte \d) bocj) flefc&tmegen ! would I had been silent ! $'dU 

ten ©ie e$ i&m bocb gegeben, I wish you had given it him; %$ habe ben 

5ftatirt bocfr ttyenb WO gefefjett, / Aat><? surely seen that man somewhere ; 
%Da$ WOllte t# bOCl> fagen? w^fltf was / going to say, I wonder ; ©ie 
tftffcn bod?, ba£, &c, ^/om &raott>, / suppose (or surely), that, &e. ; 3$ 
mO#te bOdb Wiffen, Wer er if!, / should much like to know who he is. 

Obs. The particles bod) and tt)0hl are frequently combined without 
denoting more than what one or the other of them would singly signify, 
&o that one of them may be considered as an expletive; as, ©ie WCY- 
bell b0# rwohl 3&rcn 25nibcr fennen, you will surely know your brother; 
2>a£ iff botf) roo&l nur ©cberg, ^«2 is only joke, I daresay. In other in- 
stances each particle has its appropriate meaning; as, (lr ijt rei#, aber 
bod? trc&l geiji.Cj, A<? is nc/z, but yet avaricious, I dare say. These parti- 
cles are often, either conjointly or singly, connected with others; espe- 



* In this sense it is considered as a conjunction. — See the classification of 
the Conjunctions. 

f To render the expression more emphatic, the verb is in such cases often 
placed at the beginning; as, $<\H irf) bod) me fo em>n$ gefefjen, I certainly never 
saw ant/thing like that. 



§ 99.] AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE ADVERBS. 233 

cially with nun, gar, '\a, a\\&), or benn * ; each of which, however, re- 
tains its particular import ; as, $iir roen t$ @ie fcafte, fragen @ie; nun, 
bod? irO&l fiir ttietnen O&eim, you ask for whom I take you; why ; for my 
uncle, to be sure; @r fann mir \a bed) nt#t &e(fcn,/or all that, he cannot 

help me, you know; ©ie werben mi# bod? roefjl ritcfrt gar benctben, yw 
««//, surely, not go so far as to envy me; 2>ur$ bat $enfterfann er benn 

bodb aucfr m#t herein gefommen fepn, yet, he surely cannot have entered 
through the window either. 

§ 99. We shall conclude our account of the adverbs by 
noticing several particles and phrases denoting affirmation 
and negation. 

These denote affirmation or consent:— 

3'a> yes; \a VOOfyi, certainly; \a bo$, yes, yes (implying often seme 
impatience); ganj recftt, exactly; jjewif?, or gan^ §i¥0\$, undoubtedly, or 
decidedly; freiltd), or a(let'bing$, to be sure, by all means; t\\XW jta, or 

nun gut, well then, be it so; metnettregen, or meinetfcalben, or id? bin 

C$ jufrteben, I have no objection; nur III, go on, nevermind; xmmtxtyw, , 
let it be so. 

The following express negation : — 

9?ettt, no (fetn is the definitive no, — see p. 57); ntf&t, not; b?m i|i 
ntcfyt fo, that is not the case ; nt$t bod?, not so, you labour under an er- 
ror; ba $ (bet\ nifJ?t, not exactly that, not just so; gar nt$t, not at all; 
gar t\i(i)t$, nothing at all; garfetner, no one whatever ; ntdjt §a\', not very, 
— as, m#t gar Ctel, not very much; tt?arttm mcj?t gar, psha/ nonsense! 
f eine$Wege$, or mtt dllfyten, by no means; \a md?t, be sure not; bei Bcrbe 
ntO?t, or burcf?au£ ntd?t, absolutely not, by no means; nie, nkmaf)l§, or 
ntmmerf, never; nun unb nimmermefcr, on no account, nothing shall i?i- 

duce(me,&c.),— as,£)a$ t&ue itf) nun unb ntmmermebr, nothing on eartu 

shall induce me to do that; nid?t» ireniger a 13, far from, anything but, — 
as, <Sv if! ni#t5 Weniger a(5 gele|)rt, he is anything but learned. 

Obs. 1. In interjectional phrases beginning with interrogative words. 
ntd)t is often employed to denote emphasis, or mere surprise, and not 
negation; as, 2Bte (jabe t# t(jn ntd?t gebCten! how earnestly have I not 
entreated him! !2Ba6 fcabe id? ntcfrtalle* fUr ifm get&an ! what have I not 
done for him! 2Ba» er ntcfct alle$ gelernt (mt ! what an infinity of things 
he has learned! 2Ba$ ®tC nt#t fagen! you surprise me! or, you do not 
say so ! 

Obs. 2. With respect to two negatives, the same rule obtains as in 

* For the import of nud) and J>enn see the Conjunctions. 
f dimmer is going out of use. 

x3 



234? PREPOSITIONS. [§ 100* 

English; namely, two negatives convey an affirmative sense; (53 VOCIX 
tuemanb bOft, bet fie ntd^t 6ebauette, there was nobody there who did not 

pity her; 3)iefe£ roar feinem con un* ganj unerroartet, this was not 

quite unexpected to any of us. We find, however, the best authors often 
violating this rule, and using two negatives for a negation *. 

Most prepositions are used also adverbially ; for which see § JOT. 

THE PREPOSITION. 

§ 100. The German prepositions are generally divided 
into four classes, according to the cases they govern : — 
1.) Those with the Genitive; 2.) those with the Dative; 
3.) those with the Accusative ; and 4.) those with the Da- 
tive and the Accusative, according to their import. Those 
which govern the genitive are, with a very few exceptions, 
nouns or derivatives of nouns, as may be supposed from 
the English translation annexed to them. They require 
therefore the genitive, like any noun that governs another 
signifying a different thing. The prepositions of the other 
classes are mostly particles denoting, primarily, relations 
of place; and, figuratively, several other relations. 

With regard to the cases which the various local rela- 
tions and their figurative use require, it may in general be 
observed, that the relations of origin (motion from) or be- 
ginning, of concomitancy, and of scene (i. e. where a thing 
is or acts), require the dative ; those of aim or end (motion 
to) require the accusative ; except wad) and £U, which go- 
vern the dative. 

We subjoin now the several lists generally given by Ger- 
man grammarians ; adding some examples to each list. We 
shall, however, resume (§ 105 seqq.) the consideration of 
those denoting various relations, and explain in detail both 
their prepositional and their adverbial import; as most of 
these are used also adverbially. 

[The dash ( — ), which is here annexed to some prepo- 



* Indeed this rule seems to be of modern origin. In Old German, as 
well as in Anglo-Saxon, two negatives did not affirm, but strengthened the 
negation. — See Grimm's 2)tutfd)e Grnmmatif, vol. iii. 



§ 101.] 



PREPOSITIONS. 



235 



sitions, indicates the place of the noun governed by the pre- 
position (see, for instance, the examples of anffatt, ^atber, 
and roegen) ; all those not marked by a dash must precede 
their case.] 

§ 101. Prepositions governing the Genitive: — 



anffatt, or an— jtatt, or jtatt, 

instead of 
t>ieffdt3) on this side of. 
jenfeit^, on the other side of. 
— [jalBen, or — ^alfcer*, on 

account of for' the sake 

of- 
auj?erbftl6, on the outside of. 

mnet&al6, inside, within the 

limits of. 
0(krftal6, above, on the upper 

side of. 
tmtettal6, below, on the lower 

side of 
ftaft, by virtue, or by the 

power, of 
lan#3, along (see Obs. below). 



laut, according to (the con- 
tents of). 

tttittelj?, or txrmitteljf , by means 
of; 

tro$, in spite, or in defiance, 
of (see Obs. below). 

unqeadbtet, or — im$tad)Ut, 
notwithstanding. 

Utweit, or Uttfern, notfarfrom. 

V emi6#e, by dint, virtue, or the 
power of, according to. 

tt>a()renb, during. 

tt>e#eu, or — tt>e#en, on ac- 
count of. 

Uttt — ttnllen, for the sake of. 

gllfot^e, according, or pur- 
suant, to (see Obs. below). 



Examples. 

^tnftatt (or fratt) bet Waters, or an be$ 2?ater$ jlatt, instead of the 

father; bte|Teit$ be$ Merges, ow Mi* 5i^ of the mountain; Wegen btf? 

©elbe6, or be5 @elbef we^en(or haf6en),/or^?s0&<?o/wone?/; «m &e$ 
£imme(» ttntten, /or heavens sake; um fetnetroillen, or feineu)al6en f, 

(see p. 122.) /or his sake; aufitxfyalb ber ©tabt, outside of the town (see 

* If the case governed is without any definitive, f)d6et is, according to gram- 
marians, preferable; otherwise tyaibm is used ; as, auterfi fjatber, on account <f 
old age; feineS 2i(ter6 tyalbcn, on account of his old age. 

f In familiar language we sometimes find the genitive of the pronoun bee 
(i. e. beften and beren— § 65) compounded in the same manner j as, beffemfyrtt&en 
or um beftentituKen, berentroegen or berentfyatfcen, &c, for whose sake, — instead of 
befTen fyal&en or um beffen rottten, beren rcegen, &c. ; which latter phrases are 
alone considered as correct by most grammarians. These compounds must, 
however, not be confounded with the demonstrative terms beSfyalb, beiivegen 
or be$fyrt(6en, on this (or that) account - which, like weSroegen and tve$fy<U&, on 
which account, are quite current. 



236 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 102. 

§ 102, Obs.y, tnner&aft biefe$ £reife$, within this circle; Sue X&emf? er* 
gie£t firib fec^gty en^tifc|?e 5J?eilen unter^alb ber ^auptltabt in tie 6ee, 

£fe Thames falls into the sea sixty miles below the Metropolis ; (Si* if? ftdft 
feirteS 2(mte$ ba^U befugt, /*<? is authorized to it by virtue of his office ; 
DetWOge Cine£ 2?ertrage^, fly w'rtae of (or according to) an agreement; 

ungeacfctet be$ ftf>lecfnen s 2Better$,or be£ f#le#ten 2Better$ ungeadner, 

notwithstanding the bad weather ; UllWCit eine& Qotfeti, not far from a 
village; WdfyYCnb i)C§ £riegeS, during the war. 

Obs. The three prepositions langs, trog, and gufolge, may be used in- 
differently with the genitive or dative case; only that gufolge must, with 
the genitive, precede its case, and with the dative follow it ; as, lang£ 
be* $ftife$, or langS bem $iu\Te, along the river; trog be£ @turm$, or 
tro£ bem (Sturm, in spite of the storm; gufolge 3&re59(uftrage$,or jftrem 

^[uftvage jUfolge, according to your commission. — Instead oflang$, ent* 
lang is sometimes used with the same cases, and by some authors even 
with the accusative; with the latter case, however, and generally also 
with the dative, it follows its case; as, entlang bes ©ebtrges, along the 
mountains; bem (or ben) %Balb entfang, along the forest. 

§ 102. Prepositions governing the Dative: — 



att$, out of; from. 

au^Cf, out of or without (the 

limits or reach of); besides. 
6ei, near or close to, at, by ; 

with, 
fctmien, within (in reference 

to time only). 
— cnt^e^cn, opposed to. 
— #e3enii6ev, or ^en— ti6er, 

opposite to. 
ntit, with. 
(See also the last observation. 



X\ad), to, towards ; after, for ; 

according to. 
nadbft, next to. 
Ite6f?, \ together with. 

06, oft account of; over (only 

in poetry). 
ftit, since ; during. 
VOW, from; of; by. 
g Ht, to ; for. 
— $UW\bW,against, contrary to. 



Examples. 

(ir fommt au» bem 233albe, unb ge&et nae& jenem 3)orfe, fc comes out 

of the forest, and goes to that village; natf) nact>|tCV 2Do#e, after next week; 

^cn reife fceute nacl? ber £ufte ab, / depart today for the coast; bie 

&\K$%i COn biefem Drte na# Orforb, *fo road from this place to Oxford; 

(Bie roar bet i&rem 2>ruber,^e was at her brother's; ^chge&e eben ju meis 
nem D&eirn, I am just going to my uncle; 3cb bin fchon feit tern erfren 
S8ta\ bier, unb werbe binnen brei Sagen mit me'mem SSruber abreifen, / 



§ 103.] PREPOSITIONS. 237 

have been here since the first of May, and shall depart with my brother 
within three days; @r f<X$ nacfrl? b(tn £onij$e, he sat next to the king; 

2>er 2Bin& wax ttn£ entgegen, the ivind was against us; bem (Sefege ju* 

Wtber, contrary to the law; £>ie tam Witt t^rer 20#ter, sfo came with her 
daughter; %$ lub ifin nefrjt (or faWIWU*) fetner #ratl tin, I invited him 
together tvith his lady. 

Obs. The prepositions au£ erfjalb and au£er are frequently used indis- 
criminately, in the sense of out of: yet their respective proper meanings 
are distinct, answering to the English outside of and out of — au§er 
seeming to be rather of a negative nature, defining that place only 
where the object in consideration is not; whilst au£erf)alb refers more 
distinctly to the place where it actually w; as, @r iff aufer bet* ©ta&t, 
or atlfjer Banbe&f, he is out of town, or out of the country; aufjer bem 

£ciufe, out of doors (not at home); 5)ian f&liig ein £a$er au£erfjalb 

ber ^eftUtta, awf, they pitched a camp without (i.e. before) the fortress. 
The negative import of auj»er" is more obvious in its figurative use ; as, 
auf;er3tt>etfe(, withoutdoubt; auger ©efaftr, out of danger; au£erTOewi, 

out of breath ; auj? et bet 5)i0be, om£ of fashion ; in which expressions aiders 
£al6 is unusual. 

When auf Cr occurs with an accusative case, it is a conjunction de- 
noting 6&£ or except, and the case of the noun excepted depends then 
on the verb. Thus, (5r hat auger mir nod) mehrere dlafybaxn einyela* 

ben, means, he invited several other neighbours besides me ; but Qx fyat 

alle feine dlafybaxn etngefaben, auf er mtc^, signifies, he invited all Ms 

neighbours but me, 

§ 103. Prepositions governing the Accusative r — 



ofjm (or fonber %), without. 

Uttt, round, about ; for. 
ttnbet, against. 



fcurcf), through s by. 
flit, for, instead of. 
#e#ettj against, towards. 

Examples. 

<5in 2ta# fltegt bur# ba$ XfyaU unb urn bie &tabt, a rivulet fiows 

* Though these two prepositions are often used indiscriminately, they are not 
quite synonymous : nefjft, as a derivative of ne&en, at the side of, implies adjunc- 
tion ; fammt, as allied to jufammcn, together, implies conjunction, and is espe- 
cially preferable when the predicate must necessarily be referred to both nouns 
conjointly. Thus we may say, dt fyrtt ein «&au$ nefcft einer vSKttyte yon fetnera 
SSater geer&t, he inherited from his father a house together with a mill ; but we 
should say, (it roilf ba6 £auS fammt einer Wltyie fiir taufenb ©utoen uetfaufen, he 
offers the house together with a mill for a thousand florins. 

f 2Iuger SanoeS is the only expression in which auger governs the genitive. 

\ @onoer is nearly obsolete, and occurs chiefly in a few particular expres* 
dons ; as, fon&er Sroeifet, without doubt: fonder Surd)*, without fear t &c. 



238 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 104-. 

through the valley and round the town; 3$ tt?t(l treber'filr, nod? gegen 
lt)t\ frretten, / will fight neither for nor against him ; gegen ba$ @\\bi be5 
Sfa&reS, towards the end of the year; 2)a£ l\t Utll (or fur) feitt ©elb JU 
hafcett, ^'s is not to be had for any money ; Wlkex (or gegen) ttietnen 

23tifen, against my will ; gegen (or nnbev) ben- Strom fctwimmen, *o 

swim against the stream; 0^>ne thn, without him. 

Obs. The form gen, for gegen, is nearly obsolete, occurring only in a few 
expressions: gen £immel, towards heaven; gen Dftttt, towards the east*. 

The particle b\$, until, up to, or as far as, often precedes prepositions 
which imply motion or direction to; as, bt» an btn $0.1$, up to the neck; 
bis 311 btefer ©tunbe, up to this hour; fri» in ben 2Mb, as far as into the 
forest. The preposition is often omitted before adverbs of place or time, 
and before names of festivals and proper names ; in which case Hi? seems 
to assume a prepositional character; as, fct» fjterfjer, to this place; bi$ 

$eute, till today ; Bi§ Djtern, until Easter; @r Urn nur 6i* (na#) ^ari*, 

/z6' came as far as Paris only. — It answers to the English to in such ex- 
pressions as,ron ^uian^tg 6t$ btet^tg $funb, from twenty to thirty pounds ; 
@Y if? ge()n bi$ gtfbtf ^a^jre ait, he is from ten to twelve years old. 

- § 104?. Prepositions governing the Dative and Accusa- 
tive : — 



VOt, before. 
ti6er, over, above. 
lUlter, below ; among. 
SttHfcfrerij between. 



an, on, at. 
Cilif, upon. 
Winter, behind. 
in, in; into. 
ne6en, at the side of. 

The prepositions of this class, it will be observed, do not 
refer to their object in an indeterminate manner, but define 
the particular part or side of it with which another object 
stands in local relation -jr. 

These nine prepositions govern the dative case when they 

* ®en is probably the same form with the English gain in gainsay, again, 
and against,-— Anglo-Saxon agen, ongean. 

f By this peculiarity neOen is distinguished from 6ei. Both these prepo- 
sitions denote proximity ; but nefcen implies at the side of, fcet merely near an 
object, without reference to any particular part of it. And this may serve to 
show that, contrary to what some grammarians assert, the latter preposition 
cannot belong to this class ; for, even if it were used in good German (as un- 
doubtedly it is not) with verbs of motion, it would still be more analogous to 
the prepositions nnd) and ju, which require only the dative case, than to the 
prepositions of this class. 



§ 104.] PREPOSITIONS. 239 

refer to the scene, — that is, to the place where a thing is at 
the time referred to by the verb (no matter whether in a 
state of rest or of motion) ; and the accusative case, when 
referring to a noun which is the aim or end of an action. 
The same distinction, therefore, (of scene and end) which 
in English is marked by the two prepositions in and into, 
is in German, with all these prepositions, denoted by the 
two cases just mentioned. 

Examples. 

2>er ftnafce ijt (or tauft) in bem ©arten (or vox bem *5aufe), the boy is 

in (or runs about) the garden (or before the house) ;—Qx lauft in iJCll 
©artcn (or VOX ba$ £>atl5), he runs into the garden (or before the house), 

i.e. from some other place; 2)te 2)ii#er liegen auf bem Xifcfre, lege 

fie auf mein @#reibepttlt, the books are lying on the table, lay them on 

my writing-desk; (5r ftteg auf ben 25crg mit einer Cait auf bem 9fiicfen, 

he ascended the hill with a burden on his back; WtX ftO&nt Uber (or unter) 

31wen ? who lives above (or below) you ? uber eincn ©raben fpringen, to 

leap over a ditch ; 3$ fa& t&n liber bte 2>rutf e ge^en, 2 saw fo'm go oyer 
Me bridge; @r tl'Ug ein Schwert unter btm tylat\tet,he carried a sword 
under his cloak; Sfa$ Kinb fiel Unter ben Xtfcfr, Me child fell (from his 
chair or some other place) wrccfer Me table, — unter bem Xifd) would im- 
ply that the child was under the table before it fell; Crr faf? Jttufcfcen 
mit unb meiner@C^We|ter, he sat betweenme and my sister; (§x fe$te ficfc? 
JWtfd^en mid? Unb metne ©C^trejrer, he seated himself between me and my 

sister; ©arum fre|)en @ie fcinter mir? frellen <Sie fidb neben mi#, why 

do you stand behind me? place yourself at my side ; @V Det'fretfte fid) frtn-- 
ter ben 2?OV(>an$, ^e concealed himself behind the curtain; 3J?efjrere ©e-- 

malbe fritrgen an ber^anb, uber, unter, unb neben bem (Spiegel, several 

pictures hung on the wall, both above, below, and at the side of the looking' 
glass; @r fefjnte ficft an bte 2Danb, he leaned against the wall; @r fcforteb 

etn?ai> an ba» $enfter, he wrote something on the window, — am $enfter 

would imply that he wrote something at the window. 

Obs. 1. When locomotion is implied, the preposition, according to the 
above rules, still requires the dative if the two nouns connected by it 
remain at the end of the motion in the same position relatively to each 
other as they were in at the beginning of it ; as, 2)er $unb lief JWlfcfeen 
bi\\ £Kabevn be» 2Dagen», the dog was running between the wheels of the 
carriage, i. e. his place in running with the carriage was between the 
wheels; — the accusative (gwifc&en bie 9?aber) would imply that he ran 
between the wheels from some other place. Thus also, (5r lief VOX (or £im 
ter, or neben) bem 2Bagen (Kf, he kept running before (behind, or at the side 



240 PREPOSITIONS. {§ 104. 

of) the carriage; @r ging am ^fltfie £>in, he went along the river. — On 
the other hand, the accusative is sometimes required without any motion 
being expressed, some such words as extending, or in the direction to, 
being supplied by the mind; as, bret $Uf? in bie CanyC, three feet (ex- 
tending) in length ; eine 3J?etlC tit bte Ovtinbe, a mile round; @r frattc 
etne 9taxbc uber bte Qan^e ©time (&in), he had a scar (extending) over his 
whole forehead. In several instances it seems optional to use the dative 
or accusative, — or, more accurately speaking, the noun governed by the 
preposition may be viewed in the relation of scene or of end, without 
much difference of import. Thus we may say, (5r \\X nun fcfron Uber 
CCf ©ranjC, he is by this time on the other side of the frontiers, — or, Uber 

bie Orange, beyond (or past) the frontiers ; @r bauete ein £au$ auf bem 
(or auf tin) 25erg, he built a house on the hill: in the first case we 
consider merely the act of building, of which the hill is the scene; in 
the second, we look merely to the object (the house), which is put on 
the hill by the action ,• £>a5 £inb cerbara. f?d? Winter bem (or ben) 2?or-- 

fcatty, the child concealed himself behind the curtain ; — with the dative, the 
idea of scene, i.e. the place where something keeps itself concealed, is 
prevalent ; with the accusative, the change of place is kept more in 
view; 2Ba» rerbh'yt ftcfj Winter biefem ©dieter? tvhat conceals itself 

(ivhat is concealed) behind this veil? (Schiller.) Thus also, @r fmete Uber 
etne ©tlinbe auf ber @rbe, he was kneeling above an hour on the ground; 
— @r fniete auf tie (Srbe refers to the change of position. 

Obs. 2, In the preceding examples the prepositions are used in their 
primary import of place, in which import the application of the above 
rules is easy. In their secondary or figurative import, in which no lo- 
cality is implied, recourse must be had to analogy ; and we must ascer- 
tain whether the relation expressed bears more analogy to scene or to 
aim. Thus we say, @r ifr auf ber 9?eife, auf ber ^od^eit, auf feiner 

£)Utf), in einer yUten Ca^e, he is on the journey, at the wedding, on his 
guard, in a good situation ; — 3$ 0^ Mf bie Oveife, I goon the journey ; 

3$ bin auf bie $o#jett gefaben, / am invited to the wedding; %$ lebe 

Unter bem ScfcUge ber (Sefege, I live under the protection oftlielaws; — 
3$ nefrme @ie Unter metnen &d)U$, I take you under my protection. 
Take also these examples: @r fptelt CiUt ber 2?iottne, he plays on t/te 
violin; @» beru&et auf 3'bnen, it rests with you ; auf einem ^uge blinb 

fepn, to be blind of one eye ; in meinem K Jlamet\, in my name; ein 25e= 
febl an bat J^eer, an order (directed) to the army; ein JSvkf an ttli# s a 
letter to me; %d) bacfrte an (5ie,/ thought of you (i. e. my thoughts were 
directed to you); 2Denben ®ie fid) an ifjn, apply to him (literally, turn 
yourself towards him)-, 3'# bejie&e mici? auf £ie I refer (myself ) to you ; 
auf em en a(btet\,tomindone; (5r fiet in eine Dfynmafyt, he fainted (lite- 
rally, he fell into a swoon); @r banb bie 25tumen in einen .Strang, he 



§ 105.] PHEPOSITTONS. 241 

formed the flowers into a garland ; $tnbe btC gtvetX^etfe in Cttiett 25atl&, 

iiwc? ^6* two parts into one volume. 

It will be seen from the preceding examples, that a being or con- 
tinuing in a certain state or condition, is analogous to the relation 
of scene, and requires the dative ; but a coming into a state or condi- 
tion, or a direction of an energy of the mind to an object, is analogous 
to the relation of an aim, and requires the accusative. — In the use of 
Winter, neben, and jwtfcfren, the above analogies are always obvious; 
but the other prepositions of this class are often used in a sense in 
which the analogy to scene or aim must be obscure to the learner: m 
such cases, it may be useful to observe, auf and liber generally govern 
the accusative*; the other prepositions, the dative. Thus, for instance, 
cause is expressed by uber with the accusative, and by cor with Ihe da- 
tive; as, (fr cvfcforaf uber bte ©efafjr, or nor i>er ©efa&r,fo was fright- 
ened at the danger : so we say also (§r gurnet flUf mtcb, he is angry with 
me; but, (5r liefj feinen S^n All mir &U$, he vented his anger on me. 

Thus also in reference to time, where atlf and uber always require the 
accusative case, and the other prepositions of this class the dative; as, 

3$ tr-erbe auf ben %benfo gu 3&ncn fommen, I shall come to you in the 

evening; %m 9(&Cllb fattt Ct itneber, in the evening he came again; %l\ 

eierjebn Xagen (or fceutc liber uterjebn £a#e) wivb cr guriic? fommen, 

this day fortnight he will return. However, when preceded by bi§, until, 
all prepositions of this class require the accusative case — a continuation 
to a certain point of time being implied ; as, Don 3)?or$en b'l$ an ben 
$lbenb, from the morning till the evening; bi$ tiff in bte 3?a#t, till late 
at night. 

We may also notice here, that, according to Adelung and other gram- 
marians, Uber denoting superiority always governs the accusative, whilst 
unter denoting inferiority governs the dativef ; as, 2>er Stinger tjt nicfrt 
Uber feinen ^)iet|ter, the disciple is not above his master ; %cb bttt Weit 

unter \f)\n,Iamfar below him; ®ie if! uber alie» Bob, unb er unter 

aUer J^rittf, she is above all praise, and he below all criticism. 

IMPORT OF THE PRINCIPAL PREPOSITIONS. 
§ 105. We shall now give a more detailed account of 



* In the sense of during (see the third signification of ii&er in § 105), ufcer 
governs the dative case. 

f Probably because superiority involves a rising, an exceeding, above an- 
other object; inferiority a remaining below. And, indeed, some such word as 
"elevated" or " placed" may be supplied by the mind when iifcer denotes su- 
periority. It must, however, be observed, that some authors use the dative 
when iiber in this sense is joined'with verbs of rest; and in the very example 
here given (ber©d)u(er i ft nid)t, &c), which Adelung "quotes from Luther, the 
propriety of the accusative case has been questioned. 



242 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 105. 

the signification of the prepositions in most extensive 
use : — 

5(n denotes 1.) At, on, or in, as implying the touching of, or being 
close to, an object; as, @vwartet am $u£e be» fBtV%ti t 'he is waiting at 
the foot of the hill ; ba$ <Sd?lO^ an bet X^Ut*, the lock on the door ; $ranf ■ 
fUYt am STOatn, Frankfort on the Main; eine ©Unbe am s 2lrm, a wound 
in the arm. Thus also figuratively, 2)a5 t|t ein #e&ler an i&ttl, that is a 
fault in him. 2.) Motion up to an object, or an annexing to it, or simply 
direction towards it; as, @r atUfl an btC Xt>ur,fo? wera/ to Me cfoor; 5)?an 

ban!) if?n an oincn %a\\m, they tied him to a tree; cine 29ittfct?rift an ben 

$b'nt)3, a petition to the king. (See also the examples of $ 104, Obs. 2.) 
3.) The reference of a quality or quantity to its matter or subject; as, 
<5r iff retcl) an baavem (Selbe, he is rich in ready money ; aefunb am 

Jtbrpev, abet* ffljwadfr am @et|fe, sound in body, but wea/c in mind ; (Bit 

ubertrtfft i&n an Wi$ t she surpasses him in wit; Mangel an 2Da)TeF, 
want of water. 4.) The reference of an energy to the matter or object 
on which it is exercised; as, Wan fcatiet nod; an fetnein Ajflltfc, they are 
still at work on his house ; fid) an Ctnem facfteil, to revenge oneself on a 
person. 5.) Cause, but chiefly of feelings, sensations, or mental percep- 
tions; as, j# frfl&e $r?ube an bet' ©acfoe, / rejoice in the thing; @r 

bevaufc&te fid) a in 2Beine-, he intoxicated himself with wine; an ein em 
$ie&er irerben, to c/ie of a fever ,• 3'cb evfannte i£m an feiner etimme, / 

recognised him by his voice. (See also Obs. 7.) 

2(uf denotes 1.) 0??, wpo?7, at, in reference to the surface or upper 
part of an object ; as, (*$ leben Sfjiere auf iSevgen, auf ber ebenen (Srbe 

linb auf bem ©rimbe be$ 3)?eere£, ^<?re <zrtf animals living on mountains, 
on the level ground, and at the bottom of the sea; (?r fxanb auf einem 
*%\\§<i, he stood on one foot ; (5v fafy ailf un$ frevab, he looked down upon 
us. 2.) A direct motion towards, or direction to, an object; as, (?r 
fljlVy yClYtbe ailf mtcb (aitf bte XbU'V) JU, he went straight towards me (to 
the door); 9lUev^ltIflen nweu auf \t)n gerid)tet, the eyes of all lucre fixed 
upon him. — Thus also figuratively, in defining the direction of a mental 
energy: auf ettra? aefa£t fenn, to be prepared for a thing; ailf \<i- 
manb bofC fepn, to be angry with any one ; auf s Ditttel benfen, to think 
of means. (See also Obs. 8.) 3.) Immediate succession, often with the 
accessory idea of cause ; as, HfCfo folcje auf @ie, I come next to you; ©clllay 
auf ^Sdjluy, blow upon blow; a\\f$ @ffen fcfrlafen, to sleep after eating; 
<5l' beflllbet fid) be|]er ai\\ b'lC ^frjenei, he feels himself better after the 

medicine; 2)er 25a um fatft niebt auf ben erfren ©cfclag, the tree does 

not fall on the first blow ; \&$ gef$af) atlf feinen 25cfC^I, it was done by 
his order. 4.) The foundation or ground of a sentiment or action ; as, 

Gr i(t frolj auf feinen .9tei$tfoum, hens proud of his riches; X(me e5 auf 

meine ^VantWOrtUUfl,, do it on my responsibility. 5.) Manner, way : 



i 105.] PREPOSITIONS. 243 

(5r betrug ft'cft ailf etne fc(K Ultartige SDt'if?, /*<? behaved in a very un- 
becoming manner; ailf 2)Clttfci), m German; auf eineit 3 U 8> tt * ow * 

draught; ficfr auf Q?tf?olen (auf&en $ieb) fcblagen, to fight with pistols, 

{with swords). See also § 95, Ota. 2. 6.) The extent of a quantity ; as, 
2)te £of?Cn bClatlfen ficjj auf taufenb S&alet, the costs amount to a thou- 
sand dollars; 2Ule famen urn bis auf timn, all perished but one; <ir 
feerte £>a» #afj bit auf bte #efeit, £<? emptied the cask to the dregs; ©ein 

©efcalt rowbe auf bie *jalfte berab gefe£t, //& salary was lowered to the 

half. 

Obs. I. $n and ai\f are both often rendered by on ; auf, however, re- 
fers to the uppermost part of the object, alt to any other exterior part, 
but more particularly to the sides of it : (§v fcfyrieb an bte 2Banb, Uttb 
auf ben Xtfcb, he wrote on the wall and on the table; attf bCr STOauer 
|?e()Cn, to stand upon the wall. In defining, therefore, the local relation 
of two objects, auf implies a perpendicular, an a horizontal, direction. 
Thus, auf bem £KfKtne, on the Rhine, refers to the surface of the river, 
am Dt&etne, on the Rhine, refers to its banks. So also when used ad- 
verbially; as, oben auf fc&Wimmcn (or (tegen), to swim (or lie) on the 
surface; obeit an ft'^Cn, to sit at the head or top (of a table, for instance). 
See also Obs. 2. , 

^lu$ denotes 1.) Out of, from, implying a motion from the interior or 
from within the limits of an object : @r fommt a\\$ bem better (©effing* 
X\\%), he comes out of the cellar (prison); (&X JOg etn 3Ji offer att£ ber SaftfK, 
<fo drew a knife out of his pocket ; (§V i\i alls ©aebfen, //£• is from Saxony; 
£)riefe au$ ^talieit, letters from Italy. Thus also figuratively, alts bem 
2)eUtf#en Uberfe^t, translated from the German. 2.) O/; m, assigning 

the materials or ingredients: @v ma#te eine 25ilbfaule ausf farmer, 
A* warfe a s&tfae o/" marble; 2>er SJienffb" beftehet au* £eib unb ©ceie, 

jw<z« consists of body and soul ; SH)<X$ tfl au» thm gerttOrben ? what is be- 
come of him*? 3.) From, as expressive of motive or ground : 3$ t&at 
e» au$ $erbvuft (au$ guten Urfac&en), /did it from vexation (for good 

reasons); a\l$ Mangel an (Selb, from want of money; 3$ fcblo£ au£ 
feinem ^(njlig, b<Xf>, &c, I concluded from his dress that, Sfc; ®tefC5 t|t 
f(ar au? e'tner l£>tdle in fitPtlt^, this is evident from a passage in Livy. 

2?ei is never used with verbs of motion. It denotes ].) By or at in 
the sense of "close or near to": 3$ WO&ne bet bet* £trci?e, //«» near 

* 2iu$ in this sense has, as may be seen from the examples, a reference, di- 
rect or indirect, to the change of form or state which the substance experiences 
by the action ; and by this, auO> is distinguished from Don, which, like an ad- 
jective, simply indicates the kind of substance, without any reference to its 
previous form. Thus, cine SBU&faule uon *E?imm>r. is exactly the same as etne 
matxwotne SBilbfdate, a marble statue. The difference between <\u6 and uon, in 
such eases, is therefore analogous to that between a common adjective and a 
participle past used adjectively. 

Y 2 



244 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 105. 

the church; %$ ftdtlb bei ber %t)UX (or bei i&m), I stood at the door (or by 
him); bit ©C&lacfrt bet Ccipjig, the battle of {near) Leipsic; bet ber $anb, 
at hand. 2.) With, among, in, in reference to the home or country of a 
person, or to an establishment : @r Wat bet mir, he was with me {at my 
house); @r tt>0f)nt bet feinem Dfjetm, he lives with his uncle; 25ct ben 
3?U)Ten (bet ttn£) if? ba$ ni#t 8ttte, among the Russians {ivith us) this 
is not the custom; (ft btetlt bet mir, he is in my service; %d) fcflbe ettie 
©telle betm ^rie^^^epartement, / have a situation in the War-Depart- 
ment, 3.) A reference to the will or estimation of a person : (5r ytlt 
fiel bet bcm ^b'tlige, he is in favour with the king; @r wirb ©ie bet ifrm 

entfc&ulbigen, he will excuse you to him; ©ucbe ft'tne £Uife bet ibm,seek 

no help from him; ^&} badt?te bei ttltf, I thought within myself. 4.) At, with, 
in the sense of " being present at, or simultaneous with '*; and sometimes 
with the accessory idea of cause ; as, (?r wax bet Xtfcfre (betm ©ebcte), he 
was at table {prayer); 2>eim SBegge&en lacfyte et*, at going away he laughed; 

@5 if ax bet biefer ©elegenbeit, bafr &c, it was on this occasion that, fye, ; 
25et biefen Morten brad? er in Xfcriinen au$, at these words he burst into 
tears; 25ei fetnen Xalenten wax i£m ba$ leid^t, with his talents this was 

easy to him. 5.) In implying possession : @r i|t bet gttter Cattne (bet 
gUter ©efltnbfjeit), he is in good humour {m good health); jgtjt bu bei 
(&tnnen? are you in your senses? %$ bill ni#t bet ©Clbe, / have no 
money. 

Lastly we will notice the following expressions, in which, and in some 
similar phrases, bet denotes instrumentality : Qx nafcm mt# bet ber #anb, 

he took me by the hand; @r fa gte ben 2>ieb bc'im £ragen (bet ben Jjaaren), 

he seized the thief by the collar {by the hah-) ; eitten betm 9?amen ltennetl r 

to call a person by name; bei ber £ampe (beim 9ftonbf#ein) lefen, to 

read by the lamp {by moonlight) ; (5» if? bei XobeSjttafe DevbCten, it is 
forbidden on pain of death. Thus also in swearing, betm Jpimmel! by 

heaven! %d) befdwore @ie bei aUem wa$ 3&nen ^eifig iff, I beseech you 

by all that is sacred to you. 

fitix : 1.) In most cases it corresponds to the English for (though for 
must in many instances be rendered in German by other prepositions, — 
see particularly Obs. 8.); as, 3$ frhretbe ben fSvUf fiix t(jn, I write the 
letter for him; 3'Cfl biinfe %fy\\n\ filr^re ^SUte, I thank you for your 
kindness; fur i\Wax> ftC^Cn, to answer for anything; Qx iff fe(jr grO$ fUV 
fein %IUX, he is very tall for his age ; $UX WCt\ £alten <5ie miti)? for 
whom do you take me*? 2.) In some instances it denotes to in the 

sense of "as far as regards*': 2>a3 iff etne £leinigfeit (ein grower 3?ers 

lUft) flir ifin, that is a trifle {a great loss) to him; @r \]t tobt f'UX mi#, 

* A few instances of this kind are in German likewise construed with fur, 
and in English with the verb "to be," expressed or implied ; as, 3d) finite 
(erf((ite) tfjn fiit etncn 93etru<]cr, i" think {declare) him to be an impostor; t% 
einen 9pf)i(D|*opf)en gelten, to be thought a philosopher. 



§ 105.] PREPOSITIONS. 245 

ke is dead to me; §a$ i|? ftir bicf) VCft Wmcm SRugeil, that is of no use 
to you. 

We may notice also these phrases : v -JE>ort ftiv 2Bi>rt, word for word ; 
®#ritt fUr ^Ct^ritt, step by step; fth'5 ei'jre, in Me first place, also /or 
£fe present. The expression tr a 5 fur, what sort of has already been 
noticed (p. 139). 

(§i\]Cn denotes 1.) Against, contrary or opposed to; in which signifi- 
cation it is synonymous with ttuber*. See the examples, p. 238. 2.) To- 
wards, to : gegen Often, towards the East; gegen "ftbenb, towards evening; 

feine ©itte (©raufamfeit) ge^en micfo, /«*$ goodness {cruelty) to me. 

3,) About, in the sense of "more or less": $e$cn frunbert tyltn\'ti)tn } about 
a hundred persons ; QC$en JWanjty 3^^' l % «^ow/ twenty years. 

3'll is mostly rendered in English by inf or m/o. (See the examples, 
p. 239.) We shall therefore notice only some particular expressions, in. 
which in is rendered by other prepositions : $d) bin in (Sefcfraftett fjier, 
i" am hereon business; till ©CyCllt()d(, on the contrary; im ©an^en, upon 

the whole; in Sertegenfoeit, at a loss; Wix ftnb im $rieben (im Jtriege) 

mtt bicfer 9?ation, we are at peace {at ivar) with that nation; in f?tn?a5> 

perliefct fei;n, to be in love witJi anything; einem in$ ©eficbt leben, /o 
j)raw<? o«e io his face ; in '■tfnfefrung, awtA regard to ; in ciner Xiefe ($cf>e, 

<?ntfemiinfl) Don JWatlJtg $u£?, at the depth {height, distance) of twenty 
feet; in CjUter *\b\ift)X, with a good intention ; in btC $'!UCl)t fifclagen, to 

put to flight; einen in $retlj?it fegen, fo s<?£ o?z<? «^ /ifer/y. 

O&s. 2. In definitions of place, the use of auf and in is often difficult 
to determine. Generally it may be said, that in has reference to the 
limits, and auf to the surface, of a place; as, in jcnem Oanbe, in that 
country ; — (Sr Ukt ailf bem Qanbe, he lives in the country — not in town 
(am 2anbC signifies on shore, the locality being horizontally defined — see 

Obs. I,); @r we&nt in biefer 6tra£e, he lives in this street; 2>er ftnabe 

fpkit auf bev <3tvaf»t\ the boy plays in tJie (open) street. — Farther, with 
places of public business, or with amusements in which we take an active 
part, auf is used; whilst in is employed in cases where we are merely 
attentive to what is going on. Thus we say, ailf bcr ^Cjf, at the post- 
office; auf beni 3fru(jtjau$, at the town-hall; auf bcm 5)Jarfte, at the 

market-place; auf bcm )Sal\C, at the ball; aufbCVJpCCbjCit,^ the wed- 
ding, &c. But we say, im (Sonjert, at the concert; im X&Cater, at the 



* In compounds, fleflen, generally, implies a counterpart, a set of, and in a 
few cases presence; but n>ibeir denotes opposition, aversion; as, &ec\mxed)nnnq, 
counter-reckoning; ©egcnfrti$, antithesis ; gJegenre&c, a reply ;— 2Bibctrebe, con- 
tradiction; ©egenftanb, object; — SOiberftnnt), resistance ; qeqetvoiaUiQ, present ; 
— *t>ibcrmartto, disagreeable. 

f But not vice versa, the English in being often rendered by otiiejr prepo- 
sitions in German j see, for instance, cm and Hi in this section. 

y 3 



24-5 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 105. 

theatre; in bet $rebigt (@#Ule, &c), at the sermon {school, $c.).* In 
several cases it is optional to use auf or in ; as, (5r ift auf, or in, feinem 
%immtX,he is in his room ; auf, or in, bet ^ibltot&ef,m*fo/i&rary; auf, 
or in, bet 2Telt, in the world, &c. 

9)tir, as may be seen from the dictionary, has nearly all the significa- 
tions of with. (See, however, Obs. 3.) It is used also in reference to 
means of conveyance, in which case, and in a few others, it answers to 
the English by ; as, 3cb will e$ 3'v nen mit eittem 29oten (mit bcr QJofr, 

mix bCV eVjten ©elcgen(jett) fcfyUfen, / will send it to you by a messen- 
ger {by post, by the first opportunity) ; mit bettl GilttMyCn reifett, to travel 

by the diligence; 2>ie #efhin$ wurbe mit (Sturm eingenommen, the 

fortress was taken by storm ; ttlit ©ewalt, by force. — We may notice 

also the following phrases : @r Derfjeiratfeete feine Xocfcter mit einem 

ilaufmann, he gave his daughter in marriage to a merchant; mit einem 
DCmninbt fepn, fo &<? related to a person; mit Xages ^InbrucJ?, fltf <%/- 
i?va/t; mit einem -Borte, in one word; ®ie wcrbcn e§ mit ber %tit 

erfa()ren, you will learn it in time ; ttlit $lei£, on purpose; #abt "JDiitlei- 
ben mit mir, have pity on me; mit $Ufren treteil, to tread underfoot; 
(5t If ivb mit jebeni Xage finbifd^er, Ae? becomes more childish every day. 

Obs. 3. The English "with" is often rendered by bei, sometimes by 
VCX and DOtt — see these prepositions. From the examples of the second 
signification of bei, it will be observed, that when the English "with" 
defines the locality of an object, it is rendered by bii; mit would imply 

a conjunction, or " together with"; as, <gr roar mit mir 6ei feinem $ru; 

ber, he was ivith me at his brother's; %d) mu£te mit bettt %X%tt k('l bem 

iCranfen bie ganje SJJacfrt aufltgen, I was obliged to sit up, along with the 

physician, the whole night with the patient. 

9?ac|) denotes 1.) Motion to or towards an object (see examples, p. 236; 
see also Gbs. 5.). 2.) A direction to an object; as, (St gtelte (fcpe£, Yvaxf 
Steine) nacb if)ttt> he aimed,{shot, threw stones) at him; fid) na# Often 
wenben, to turn towards the east. 3.) For, or after, with verbs denoting 
search, pursuit, or desire; as, ©cjucfe nacb bem ©C^neiber, send for the 
tailor ; fifty Had) Ctwa* umfe&CH, to look about for anything; nacb (Ffjre 

ft xeken, to strive for honour ; nad; etroa£ fdfrmacbten (feufjen, t>erlam 

gen), to pine (sigh, long) for a thing; ($X fragtC nacb 3f nen > he asked after 
you. 4.) After, in reference both to space and time; as, 2) a fommen 
fie etlier nadf) bem anbem, there they come one after another ; ®ie jog, 

* When public buildings are mentioned as the locality of an office or en- 
gagement, they are construed with nn : ^rebiflcr flti ber ©t. <peter$fu:d)e, preacher 
atlSt. Peter s Church ,• ^profeffoe an ber Ijofjen @d)uU\ &c\, Professor in the Uni- 
versity, fyc. When an office or engagement is to be defined with regard to its 
master, or the particular establishment, without reference to any locality, bet 
is used. — See the second signification of bei. 



§ 105.] PREPOSITIONS. 24-7 

t$ na# ftd), she drew it after her ; \\a&) fetnem lobe, after his death. 
Thus also figuratively, ber bef?e 2>ict)ter na# ^omer, the best poet after 
Isomer. 5.) According to, by, after, referring to what regulates, or serve3 
as a pattern ; as, 3$ leltf natb ben ©efegen, //i«ff according to the laws; 
tiad) bem CanbeSgebraitCft, according to the custom of the country; $}nW 
muf? ntC&t na# bcm ©Ct^etne urtjjeilen, one must not judge by appearance ; 

naci? htm ©ewicfcte oerfaufen, fo sell by weight; 3?acji meiner U&r if? e$ 
fcalb gwei, by my watch it is half past one; t\ad) ber dlatxit ^egetri^net, 

drawn from nature ; CUX ©em a I be micfr (iOrreggiO, a picture after Cor- 

reggio. We say also, na# etrraS rtecfren, or fc^metfen, f« 6m<?//, or fasfc, 

o/* anything. 

Obs. 4. 3^acb is placed after its case, 1.) When it denotes a following 
the course or track; as, @r gebet bem ^lutfe (ber (Strafe) na(i?, /«c /o/- 

/omw £/«e river {the road)*; — (5r gefKt liaf|? bem $(U|Te signifies, he goes 
to the river. 2.) When used in the restrictive sense of " as far as 
regards"; as, %tf) feitne tyn nur bem Seamen na#, I know him only by 

name; bem Cetbe nacl) im ©rabe, ber ©eele nacb im ^immel fepn, to 

be, as far as regards the body, in the grave, as regards the soul, in heaven. 
When nad? denotes according to, it is in many instances optional to 

place it before or after its case ; as, nacb meiner 9ftetnung, or meiner 
^.Vetnung na#, according to my opinion; 9?acfc> feiner ©etrcbnfrett, or 
feiner Ociro^n^eit na#, itanb er frill) auf, according to his custom he rose 

early. 

Obs. 5. Motion to an object is expressed both by nach and ju. With 
persons JU only must be used; with proper names of places, or countries, 
na#; as, (Sr ging na# 2Binbfcr jlim ft'dntge, he ivcnt to Windsor to the 
king. — In many other cases both prepositions are used indiscriminately ; 
as, @ie liefen jU, or nad?, t^ren ©cfrtjfen, they ran to their ships. Yet 
the proper distinction of nacb and ju would appear to be, that nacb de- 
fines more the direction of a motion, $u more the termination of it, — 
the former implying a course towards an object, the latter more the 
reaching or the attaining of it. Thus, $lad) bem 2>egen greifen (or (an; 
gen), to reach for the sword; — JU ben SSaffen greifen, to take up arms. 
Hence in the examples of the second signification of nad), though refer- 
ring to a person, Jit cannot be used, as they imply mere directions; 
whilst, on the other hand, gu in its second and third significations could 
not be interchanged with na#, as it evidently refers there chiefly to the 
end of the motion. — See the end of Obs. 8. 

Ueber denotes, 1.) Both over and above in all their significations; as, 
@tn ©djroert inng Uber fetnem $aupte, a sword hung over his head; iiber 

* SRnd) in such instances may perhaps be considered not as a preposition, 
but as a separable particle ; the form of the verb being then nrtd)<jc!;en. 



248 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 105. 

eilt $0lf fcerrfdKH, to rule over a people; Uber bem 'Ba|]cr, above the 
water; uber jwattgtg -}Jferbe, above {more than) twenty horses. (See also 
examples, p. 239.) 2.) Beyond: @r jcfcof? U6er bat 3tel fcittauS, fo *Ao£ 
beyond the mark; 2)a5 gefKt Uber ttlCinen SSerftUttb, tfwtf goes beyond my 
conception. 3.) During, often with the accessory idea of cause : (§.X 
f#ltef liber bet* $rebt<jt ein, he fell asleep during the sermon ; ^cb bin 
iifcer bem ©UCfrC'tt mUbe getrorben, I have become tired during (and also 
in consequence of) the search. 4.) At, implying cause : <&K \\x bcf? Uber 

Hftr jSetragen, he is angry at your behaviour; 3$ erftautitc Uber feine 

^UtjttfKit, / was astonished at his boldness. See also Obs. 7. 5.) About, 
concerning: ®ic ffrittetl fid; Uber etne £leittigfett, they disputed about a 

tri/le; Uber etwas naclibenfen, to think about a thing; Ste wer&en fid) 

baruber perCjfei(i)en, they will come to terms about it. Notice also these 

phrases: 2£ir rrerben uber £oHanb nach Seutfcblanb retfen, we shall 

go to Germany by way of Holland ; -JlUCi) Uber if)lt ! curse on him / 3$ 
fattlt C5 ntCt?t Uber'5 ^erj brtngen, I cannot find it in my heart. 

Um denotes, 1.) Round, around : (5r gttty Utt1 baS £au5 (ttm bie @Cfe), 
ta wew^ round the house {round the corner). 2.) About, near to : Qv i|r 

immer um mid), he is always about me ; Um biefeOegenb muf? er wc&ncn, 

near this place he must live; um biefe ^C\t, about this time. 3.) For, in 
reference to an object of exertion or solicitude: (?r avbeitet Utt1 I?Cfjl1, 
he works for wages; 3$ b\XXi \\\\\ ^ergebUttg, I beg {for) pardon. See 
Obs. 8. 4.) About, concerning: UD1 etit>a£ befCTyt feptt, to be concerned 
about a thing; Uttl etrflfl? ttnfjett, to know about athing. 5.) By, defining 

the amount of a difference: @r tfr um einen itepf a/cper, Uttb Urt1 ein 

3*flf)r iilter, flli* i$, fo « taller by a head, and older by a year, than I ; 

2>a$ iit um einen 3011 \u lang, this is too long by an inch; %d) fcafce micfr 

um ein -JH'Uttb cerrecfcmet, / am wrong by a pound.— In this sense um, 
joined with \'o or fo Piel, is often used as a conjunction, before compara- 
tives, for bef?0, and is then rendered by so much the: ^t e&ev ©ie f m - 

men, um fo lieber (or betro lieber) ttfivb e* mtr fepn, the sooner you come, 

{so much) the more agreeable will it be to me. 6.) A loss, with a few verbs 

only : -Sie tarn um t>iel@elb babei,sfo lost much money by it ; einen um 
baS L^eben bringen, to take away one's life; Q$ i|f um i&n gefcftefrcn (or 

yet&cltt),fo w undone. In the following and similar expressions, in which 
um mostly may be rendered in English by to have, the prepositional 
phrase is the proper nominative of the verb: (5£ \ft cine fcllbne <&ad)C 
Um ein gUte$ ©ennffen, it is a fine thing to have a good conscience — for 
ein gute» ©enufTen ijr etne fclj'one 6ad?e. We may notice also the fol- 
lowing expressions : etne? um bat anbere, by turns, alternately; immer 
um ben anbern Xag, every other day; fid) um einen revbient macfcen, 

to deserve well of anybody ; (v$ fen barum, let it be so. 

Unter denotes, 1.) Both under and below in all their significations: 

G5 tiegt unter bem Sifcfje, it lies under the table; unter ber Dberfla#e, 



§ 105.] PREPOSITIONS. 249 

below the surface; %d) Witt C» unter je&lt ffiutlb ni#t oerfatlfett, I will 
not sell it under ten pounds; IMtCV feiner ^ttlettUlly CHufflcfet, 9?Cyie= 
rUlty), under his direction (care, government) ; UtttCV btCfCtH ©tettlC* wwflfer 
(beneath) this stone. 2.) Among: (53 entfranb ein @trett UtUCt iptten, 
there arose a dispute among them ; bet 6CftC UlttCt Mt!», ^ fes/ among 
us; unter attbern, among o*A«?r*. 3.) During, amidst : @r iff unter bem 
CefClt etnyCfcf)lafcn,^/(?// asleep during the (or whilst) reading; 3$ Hn 

unter #reuben alt yeroorben, / have grown old amidst comforts ; unter 

bem Conner ber £anonen, amidst the thunder of the cannon. 

$on denotes, 1.) A motion or removal from a place ; also a separa- 
tion from an object : @r fommt OOtn iBerge, he comes from the hill; OOn 

then, fro?n above; (Bci) weg oon frier, go /z<?rcee?/ ©dmeibe ein ©titer* oon 
biefem £uc&cn ao, cut a piece of this cake; (5v iff oon ipr aefefjieben, 

he is separated from her. 2.) Beginning, origin : bie 3?etfe U011 Cottbon 
tiact) 25atb, the journey from London to Bath; O0tt je$t rttt, henceforth; 
(in (Sbelmann 0011 ©C&urt, a nobleman by birth. Hence S.) Origin with 
regard to the agent or author, especially in the passive voice, where the 
agent is always construed with oOtt : (5r WC\$ e# OOlt ipr, he knows it 
from her; ($r foil OOn metner S)CMQ |fevben, he shall die by my hand; tin 

©ebtcfrt oon (Sotbe, apoemby Gothe; ein ©emalbe con TOrecln filter, 

a picture by Albert Durer; @r ttUirbe OOn ifor getabelt, he was blamed by 
her. Thus also with qualifications in regard to agency : 55a£ War fef)f 
yUtiy" (or unreclH") OOn ifrm, this was very kind (or wrong) of him. 4.) The 
relation of form to its substance, or of a quality to its subject : Qcx 

£RtttQ if? oon (Solb, the ring is of gold ; erne 3*?eipe oon 25aumen, a 
row of trees; flein oon $erfon, small in person; ein <3ngel oon einem 
£mbe, an angel of a child ; ein ©cfcurfe oon einem 25ebienten, a rogue 

of a servant. — In all these examples the first noun may be considered 
as the accident (i.e. form or quality) of the second. (See also Obs.6.) 
5.) Possession: as, (Sadden OOn SCifittflfett, things of (i. e. possessing) 

importance ; ein 9Jiann oon Xalenten (oon ^Infe&en, oon s #erm'oyen), 

a man of talent (of consideration, of property). It denotes sometimes 
also the partitive relation ; as, einer 00tt ifwen, one of them. — See the 
Use of the Genitive in the Syntax. 

$0r denotes, 1.) Before: Qtx jfiUlb 00r mir, he stood before me; OOr 
ber 2(mr, before the door ; oor 0|tefn, before Easter. 2.) Superiority: 

@ie geicimet ft'# buret) i&re Cebpaftiyfeit oor alien anbern aug, she di- 
stinguishes herself from all others by her vivacity ; (&K fraf ba$ OOr mir 
OOvauS, he has that advantage over me. 3.) To, implying deference : 2llle 

jtanben oor i&m auf, all rose to him ; @r na&m ben #ut oor mir a£>, he 

took off his hat to me. 4.) The cause of fear, aversion, and similar feel- 
ings; also of hindrance: @r lief 00r bem fteiflbe baoon, he ran away from 

the enemy; %cb "jitterte (err'otfjete, fcba'mte mich) oor i&m, / trembled 

(blushed, was ashamed) before him ; CtltCia, ^bfcftetl (@fel, $Urct;t) 00f 



250 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 105. 

etwa:? fca&ett, to ^fl«e arc aversion to (disgust at, fear of ) anything ; CtttMs 

vox einem cerc-ergen, to co«c^ anything from a person; 3$ fann per 

tcm Oarm fern 2£ort boxen, I cannot hear a ivordfor the noise. 5.) Cause 
as arising from an excessive intenseness of a sensation : (5r gttterte VOX 
j?alte, fo? trembled with cold ; ®ie fcljaumte DOV 2J3utt), #fe foamed with 
rage; \>tX%XtV^i WCittert, to weep for joy ; %d) perfcfomad&te DOY 2Hirf?, 
/ a>?j tfywg o/" thirst. 

3u denotes, I.) A motion to, referring to animated beings : (?r ging 
gU fetnem 2?VUber, he went to his brother ; ©ege btdb gU mtr,*i* down by 

me; %ci) t»UI lieber gu ben X^ieren itn SDalbe gefcen, 7^7/ rather go to 

the beasts in the forest. 2.) To, in reference to a proceeding to an action 
or business ; which latter is often expressed figuratively by the place 
where it is usually performed: @ie fdmttett gtlr I&etlung ber Qxb; 
fd) aft. they proceeded to the partition of the inheritance; £omtnen ( Ste glim 
$riifrffticf, (gut* Arbeit, gttm l&piel)» come to breakfast (to work, to play); 

Qx fii&rte fie gum IHtar, he led her to the altar; gur ©dwle (gu 2>ette, 

gU Sifc&e, gUr £trc^e) ge6en, to go to school (to bed, to table, to church) ; 
tXXOdi Jit SDfarfte brtngen, to bring anything to market. 3.) To, or as far 
as, referring to the ultimate limits of an action : 2?il gum -$0le iff ncfi) 
DttCmanb DOrgebrungCn, nobody has yet penetrated to the Pole; %W\[e t$ 

bis gum SHanbe, fill it up to the brim; vom Jjjimmcl bi§ gur (SxbC,from 
heaven to earth; @X f)at f 5 6ig gum D&erjtetl gebraciH, Ae Aas raised him- 
self to the rank of colonel. 4.) An adjoining or appertaining to: ( Jege H git 

ben ufcrigen, % it along with the others; SDafier gum 2Beine giefjen, to 

pour water to the wine; Qx fang gltr ©Uttatve, A<? sang to the guitar ; 1£ci% 

gerydrt gu einer anbern Stlafie, this belongs to another class ; berSctjluiJef 

gum ©C&lOlJe, the key to the lock. 5.) In, at, in reference to the rela- 
tion obscene (§ 100) ; but chiefly with proper names of places : Qx lebt 
gU (or in) Ccnbon, he lives in London; ber fJapft gU $0m, the Pope at 
Rome. In these phrases, gut vedbten (or I infer!) ijano, on the right (or 
left) hand; gU ben $U§en, at the feet ; guv £>eite, at the side of, git may 
both refer to the scene or aim of an action ; as, (Sr lag, or ex fiiel, mix gU 
^Upen, he was lying, or he threw himself, at my feet. 6.) The relation 
of means to an end; as, Qx tr>at e? gum ©pa£, he did it for fun; (£elb 
gum 0?eifen, money for travelling (see also' §91, Obs. 2.); 2Ba» tTOlIen 

@te gum ^riibftiiif fyaben ? what will you have for breakfast? $u meinem 

6r|raunen fjb'rte tch, ba$ &c, to my astonishment I heard that, &c. To 
this relation (of means to end) we may perhaps refer those cases which 
imply a leading or inducement, either from internal or external causes j 
as, @r if? glim ©Otbaten geboretl, he is born to be a soldier ; Sie t>at 
Xalent unb ^eigung gur 3)?uflf, she has talent and inclination for mu-> 
sick; Gx ill gU 2(llem fa&ig, he is capable of anything; OCX 2*efe&[ glim 

Jfngrtjfe, the order for attack; ($x rtett> miv gu einem 2?ergieicfr, he ad-* 
vised me to a compromise. 7.) A transition from one state into another j 



§ 105.] PREPOSITIONS. 251 

<5£ oerbrannte 311 $f#e, it burnt to ashes; 311 2Baffer roerben, to turn to 

water; @r jttef? e$ ^U ^Ulfer, he ground it to powder ; etWClt gU ©Clbe 
macfren, to convert a thing into money. Thus also with changes of a man's 

rank or situation : @ie roa&lten i&n gum £b'nige (gum ©cbteb^viciner), 

Mey chose him for their king (arbiter); @r na&ttl fie 3Ur $raU, he took 
her for his wife. 8.) Manner, either in reference to travelling — 31*. $U#e, 
gU £anbe, gU Staffer, reifeil, to travel on foot, by land, by water — or with 
numbers, measures, and weights, where it indicates the manner of ar- 
rangement or of division : 2>a Iteyen fie gU Xaufenben, there they lie 

by thousands; bus $funb 3U fed^ge^tt Unjen, bev $u£ 311 gwolf 3oif, 

gerec^tietj tf/fe pound reckoned at sixteen ounces, the foot at twelve 
inches. 

In most examples of the last signification, JU with its case forms an 
adverbial phrase : there are, however, many other instances in which 311 
with its noun may also be considered as an adverb; as, 311 Jpaufe, at 
home; gur $anb, at hand; gum erfren Qwetten, britten, &c.) tyiate,for 

the first (second, third, $c.) time ; 3U ttueberfcoften Sftalcn, repeatedly /JUT 
(Senii^C, sufficiently ; gill* UngebufjV, unbecomingly, unduly ; — especially 
such phrases as form component parts of verbs (§ 89, Obs. 2.) ; as, 311 
£kq£u ne&meil, to take to heart ; 311 WtlttaQ Cjfett, to dine, &c. &c, 
which must be learned from practice. 

Obs. 6. The subject matter is denoted by PCll, Uber, and auf. 2?0tt 
expresses it in a general way, and answers to of: 28ir fpvacl)en VOW ibm, 
we spoke of Mm; bk ftabcl fOlll ITbttHn, the fable of the lion. Ueber is 
used in reference to the subject of a dissertation, or of an investigation 
of its merits and demerits; auf in reference to the subject of a compo- 
sition intended to produce a certain effect — the former implies an ap- 
peal to our judgement, the latter an address to our passions ; as, 2Bir 
fprac&Clt Uber ben ©Cgentlanb, we spoke on {we argued) the subject; ein 

2Cerf (cine 9?ebc) Uber bie bifentlicbe @r*jie&ung, a ivork (a speech) on 

public education;— ($\C$W auf ben Xob etne$ £tnbe£, elegy on the death 

of a child; ein ©ebicbt (i$piyramm,@atire) auf einen macfren, tomakea 

poem (an epigram, a satire) on a person. Take also these examples : 
©Chiller's Cteb DCn ber (Slotfe, Schiller's Song of the Bell; pope's $er= 

fucb uber (not auf) ben 3)?enfdhen, Pope's Essay on Man; @n#el'£ £ob= 

rebe auf $vicbvt# ben (SrOfen, EngeVs panegyric on Frederick the 
Great. 

Obs. 7. Cause is denoted by various prepositions, each implying some 
different modification : — $Ui?, out of, from, denotes the motive or ground 
of an action or event — see the third signification of ciu$. $cn, by, 
denotes agency, and therefore differs from burd), by, which denotes in- 
strumentality ; as, @r wurbe ron bem 9?ki)ter oerurt&eilt, &uvcb ben 

Jpfnfer bingcric^tet JU ttevben, he ivas condemned by the judge to be exe- 



252 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 105. 

cuted by the hangman. If the first clause be omitted, we may say, (§r 
trurbe vom Renter hittyericljtet: the instrumentality of the executioner 
being left out of view, he is then considered as the efficient cause. — 
As cpn refers chiefly to an agent acting on a passive object, so, on the 
other hand, an refers chiefly to a cause considered as a means of affect- 
ing the susceptibility of the object, and merely by its presence, without 
any obvious action; as, 3$ ferttte ba$ t)0n tf)m, I learned that of him, 

i. e. he taught it me; 5)te Corner lernten an einer gefchetterten ©aleerc 

KrtCg5fclH|fC fjaUCn, the Romans learned from a shipwrecked galley the 
art of building ships of war, i. e. their susceptibility of learning, their in- 
genuity, was excited by the presence of the wreck. (See also the fifth 
signification of an.) %tt then implies the presence of the cause with 
the object acted upon; iibCV, on the contrary, implies causation from a 
previous event or circumstance, and is chiefly used with verbs denoting 
emotions. Thus we say, @r Crfreuet fid) an fctnen £tnbern, he delights 
in his children ,— and @r frCUt fid) UbCV* bie ^Infunft fetne£ @0&ne$, he 
rejoices at the arrival of his son. — $or likewise denotes a present cause, 
but either as arising from an uncommon degree of intensity, and there- 
fore producing an unusual effect (®ie iff nicfit an einem fttrfrhfern, fen* 

bent VOX ©Ut& CVIttCf t, she was not choked by a cherry-stone, but by rage) ; 
or as the cause of unpleasant feelings. See the fourth and fifth signifi- 
«ations of VCV. 

Obs. 8. End or final cause, expressed in English by for, is rendered in 
German by the prepositions fiir, Uttl, JU, auf, and nacb ; which are distin- 
guished thus: — ^ur implies " in defence of," " for the benefit or use of;'' 
um, on the other hand, implies a striving for an object, the acquisition 
of which is doubtful. Thus of freemen fighting for liberty we should say, 
(&ie fecflten fiir tfrre #retf)eit — i.e.in defence of it; and of slaves fighting 
for liberty, ©ie fed? ten tim i&re ^ret&ett— i. e. in order to acquire it ; @r 
bat Um (Snabe fUr hen 2?er6rOCf)er,Ae begged for mercy for the criminal.— 
In reference to the price of a thing, for may be rendered indiscriminately 
by um and fur ; though in reference to the thing sold or bought, it must 
be rendered by fur alone; as, 3$ faufte (or uerfauftO) ba$ $ferb fiir 
— or um— fjunbert S&aler, / bought (or sold) the horse for a hundred 
dollars ;— -but 3'$ 9 a & fjunbert X^alCV fur (not um) ba$ ffitVb, I gave a 
hundred dollars for the horse. — %U refers to what is necessary, or pro- 
motive, in the producing of an object or event; as, Suet) ju einem 
2)utntel fiir <§te, cloth for a cloak for you; reif g tir (Srnte, ripe for har- 
vest; bte @rlatl6ni£ jum 2?erfauf, the permission for the sale. (See the 
sixth signification of \u.) Hence we say, ®ie fptelCtl 3U1U tyXXQtXXXiVe, 



* 9Iuf bie 9lnfunft, in this phrase, would denote an ejected arrival ; as nuf j 
mostly implies some object in view— see Obs. 8. 



5 106.] PREPOSITIONS. 253 

they play for amusement — i. e. play is the material, as it were, of the 
amusement; @tC fpielen fUr (§elb, they play for money — i.e. they are 
paid for their play ; but in gaming for money, which involves uncer- 
tainty of acquisition, we must say, @ie fptelett um (not fur) (Mb; @r 
fief tit $lai)batn 3U fiulfe, he called on the neighbours for help; @r 
fdfn'ie Vim $iit\~e, he called out for help. — 9(uf, on the other hand, implies 

expectation ; as, g# wax auf etnen fclc^en ©mpfang mdf?t corfceretter, 

I was not prepared for such a reception— i. e. I did not expect it: gu 
instead of auf, in the preceding example, would mean, I was not pre- 
pared with the means of making such a reception. — 9?a# answers to 
the English for with verbs of motion, but more especially with words 
expressive of desire, or a longing for ; and mostly with the accessory 
idea that this feeling cannot immediately be gratified. — See the third 
signification of na#. 

It will then be seen, that the difference between rta$ and ju in this 
figurative use is analogous to that of their primary import (see Obs. 5.), 
inasmuch as t\ad) implies a desire without the prospect of an imme- 
diate gratification or end; gu, on the contrary, an immediate leading to 
it. — See the above examples on Jju. Thus, we would say also, 3$ frabe 
Quft 311 etnem Spajtcrgange, I have a mind for a walk ; and (gg gefuffet 
fie nadb perbOtenen $rU#ten, she has a longing for forbidden fruits. 

TIME. 
§ 106. Most prepositions are used also in reference to 
time, as may be seen from several examples in the pre- 
ceding section. — See also p. 241. The following additional 
remarks may, however, be useful : — 

$rt, on, is used only with the noun Sag (expressed or understood) and 
its compounds; as, am brittert Sage, on the third day ; am ©onntag, on 
Sunday; am erften 3u(p, on the first of July ; @ie ffarfcen an einem 

Sage, they died on one day. — We say however also, am 9J?orgen, in 
the morning ; am 3(benb,tra the evening; am 9lrtfange, at the beginning ; 
am @nbe, at the end; but, in ber D^acfct, at night; trt ber Wnte, in the 
middle. — $uf generally implies time future to that referred to by the 
verb; as, 3$ bejtellte ben ©Cfcnetber auf morgert, / ordered the tailor to 
come tomorrow; WlV f#0ben eg auf ben fofgenben Xag auf, we deferred 
it to the following day. Accordingly, when the English for refers to time 
posterior to that referred to by the verb, it is rendered mostly by auf 
(sometimes by fur); whilst, when defining the duration of the action or 
state expressed by the verb, it is rendered by lang, not by auf; as, 

Cetfjen 6ie mtr bag auf (or fur) einen ^ugeublicf, lend me that for a mo- 

ment; 3$ gefK auf bret Sage ailfg Canb, / am going for three days into 

the country; @r fcat brci ganje Sage laug (or cine 3ett rang) gewartet, 

z 



254 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 106. 

he has waited for three whole days (or for some time); (&0 fa£ er Utele 
Sage, OtelC ^aljre fang, thus did he sit for whole days, for whole years. 
— 3n» ^^ e tn - e English in, denotes also within, and hence. Thus, 3$ 
Will ba$ in etner ©tunbe ff^reibeil, may signify, / will write this within 
(iltnerfcalB) an hour, or an hour hence. — Ueber denotes 1.) above, implying 
duration; as, @r blkb tibtX tin %CL$X a\l$, he staid abroad above a year. 
2.) After, implying a point of time, in such expressions as, 9l'dd)\rtn 
©onntag iibex brei 2Do#en iff fein (Seburtgtag, ^ree w<?efo after next 

Sunday is his birthday; WlV W\ht\ eg big UbCV QC^tXagC atlffcfcieben, 
&;<? «ra$ postpone it till this day se'nnight; Uber'g ^a&V, this day twelve 
months. Notice also these phrases: uber fltt^ Ober lang, soowe?' or 

fafer; allemal uber ben anbevn (britten) Xag, ewr^ o^r (third) day ; 

Uber 9?acjH, during the night. — Um denotes about; as, tim ^frngjten, about 
Whitsuntide. In reference to the time marked by the clock, however, 
it is rendered by at; as, Uttl ^efjen U&r, at ten o'clock; tim t)a\b brer, at 
half-past two. — $or, before, is used also in the sense of ago ; as, vtx 
etnet* ©tlinbe, an hour ago; VOX Ptelen ^a^ren, many years ago; VtX 
3etten, ages ago, in old times. In the following phrases the case go- 
verned by VCX takes g at the end : cor filter*, in old times; t>0r$(benbg, 
before evening ; VOX ^Pcltta^, before noon; POt 3?a#t£, before night. — 3 iJ > 
in, at, is used chiefly with the nouns ^Cit, time, and ©tunbe, hour; as, 
JU jenen 3eiten, in those times; JU gletC&er 3eit, at the same time ; 
IUX beitimmten ©tunbe, at the fixed hour. %\\X ©tunbe means to this 
hour. 

Obs. As in English, nouns may be used without a preposition, to 
define the time of the verb, and are then generally construed with the 
accusative case; as, 3$ febe ifjn jeben Xag, I see him every day • ©ie 

retfte ben (or an bem, or am) erjten Wdx$ ab, she departed the first of 
March. Thus also duration : @r roartete einen Xag (eine ©runbe), he 

waited a day (an hour). — The names of the days of the week, and, more 
frequently, the natural divisions of the day, (as morning, noon, &c.) are 
used also in the genitive case without a preposition; but only when the 
day or the week is either already known, or particularly defined ; as, 

(5r fravb ben fecfrften ^ai, 9ttorgeng (or beg 9J?orgeng) um a#t Ur)r, he 

died the 6th of May at eight in the morning; StQiX retfen SWontagg (for 
am ^fonttfy) <\b, ive depart on Monday. To which may be added the 
anomalous genitive be» 3?ad)tg (see p. 87); as,@v Um um etlf Ut)r beg 
3?ad)tg, he came at eleven o'clock at night. When the noun is defined 
by any other word than the definite article — the day or the week of 
which it denotes a part not being known — it must be construed with 
the accusative case, or with a preposition; as, 2Bir tVOffen ©re biefen 
2lbenb (or na#j?en $J?ontag, or an einem ©onntag) btfucjjen, we will 
come to see you this evening (or next Monday, or on a Sunday). The 



§ 107.] PREPOSITIONS. 255 

nouns just noticed, and Sag, day; *3Ji0nat, month; and 3<ti)V,year, are 
used in the genitive to denote an habitual or usual recurrence ; as, (&v f?e* 
f)Ct b?$ 3)£0ryen? fruf) atlf, fo rises early in the (i. e. every) morning ; 2)e3 

@onntag$ geftet er in bie ^ircj)e, on Sundays he goes, to church; jweimar 
be? Xage» ^(rjenet ne&men, to to&e medicine twice a day ; vkxmal be$ 

?jCil)Xe$, or bt$ 93?onat#, four times a year, or a month. The phrases, 

eine» Xage£, one day, once; &eutia,e$ Sao,e£, now-a-day; nacfefterXage, 
o«<? 0/ ^es<? days, are idiomatic expressions, like so many others formed 
by the genitive. See the use of the genitive in the Syntax. 

PREPOSITIONAL PARTICLES USED ADVERBIALLY. 

§ 107. Most of the prepositions are used also as adverbs 
of place ; as such they occur chiefly in compounds, either 
as separable particles of compound verbs (§ 89), or in com- 
position with \)tt and |)ttt (§ 96), and other particles; as, 
V0rau£, VQtan, buvc&au?, &c. They are, however, often 
found separately ; as, gr #in# tm 3iwmer a «f Mlb a&, he 
walked up and down in the room ,> g£ tfi au$ Wtt il)ttl, it is 
all over with him ; ®er 2D?0tiat iji am, the month is expired; 
@r it>of)tlt nebcn an, he lives close by. See also note(J), p. 256. 
We may further notice the following adverbial phrases: 
bUVCb imb bavcf), through and through, thoroughly - U6ev Mlb 

iiBer, all over ; am tmb am, o?» c/Z szVfes ; naeO anb nadb, &/ 
degrees; fur anb fur, /or gwr,. mbzt au$ nodb em ttuffen, 
not to know how to help oneself \ not to see one's way, 

Obs. 1. As the preposition defines the direction of a motion only with 
regard to the particular object to which it refers, an adverbial particle 
is often added, to define the direction of the motion as viewed by the 
speaker or spectator (§ 96, Obs. 1 and 2.) ; as, @r fartt Jtl tltt$ fceraitf 
(or fcerafc, herein, &c), he came up {down, in, $c.) to us; ©ie Uef auf bie 
©traj?e &mau$, she ran out into the street; ($$ fiel in eine tiefe ©rube 

^inafc, it fell down into a deep ditch; @r Jiff CUlf ttlicf) JU, fo to «jp to 
me. 2?on, especially, from its denoting merely the starting point, is often 
attended by one of these adverbs, to particularize the direction of the 
motion; as, t)0tt unten ailf, from below upwards ; DOtt biefertt $UtlCt ait, 
from that point forwards ; 2>on 2)eutfcb1anb au3 Derbreitete fic|> bie .9?e= 

formation, the Reformation spread itself from Germany. Hence, the 
same particle often occurs twice in the same phrase; first as a preposi- 
tion, and then as an adverb compounded with fjer and £tn, to render 
the expression more graphic ; as, @r fprang iioer ben ©rafcen fcinufrer, 

z2 



256 PREPOSITIONS, [§ 107. 

he jumped over the ditch ; @r fief urn ben XtfcJ) fcerum (orin$ $au$ &in* 

Cin), he ran round about the table (or into the house)* 

The adverb has in both languages always the verbal accent, and in 
German, as may be seen from these examples, it follows the preposi- 
tional phrase; according to the general rule, that the defined word fol- 
lows the defining part*. Thus, in the above example, ($Y fiel in etne 
©rube fcittab, the prepositional phrase In etne ©rube defines and 
individualizes the general term (jinafc. From this it may already be 
perceived, that, as an adverb, the particle is a far more important word 
than as a preposition ; since in the latter character it is subordinate to its 
noun, indicating an accidental relation of it, almost like the inflection of 
cases (see § 28, Obs.). The characteristic distinction of the preposition 
from the adverb being then its subserviency to the noun it governs, and 
which, as the most important word of the phrase, engages our attention 
to the exclusion of the particle, the latter has a tendency to resume its 
original and more independent character of an adverb, whenever the 
noun ceases to engage our attention, as may be seen in the compounds 
bflffllif, thereupon; ftiettUlf, hereupon; WCVflUf, whereupon, &c, which 
represent a prepositional phrase, of which the substantive ceasing to 
engage our attention, and being therefore represented by the mere par- 
ticles ba, tt?0, &c, the preposition resumes the place and accent of an 
adverb : see § 64, Obs. 4. and § 65, Obs. 5. — Hence, also, when the 
case of the preposition is easily understood from the context, it is 
omitted, and the preposition thus resuming an adverbial character, 
becomes a component part of the verbf ; as, ben £jut auffe^en, to put 
the hat on (i.e. one's head); bte #ferbe anfpannen, to put the horses to 
(i.e. the carriage); 2Boften @te ba§ ©elb einfrecfen? will you put 
the money into (your pocket)? Jrfat et* ba§ 2?UC& mttge6ra$t? has he, 
brought the book ivith (him) %? — Not unfrequently, however, the pre- 
position with its case is expressed, and yet the particle repeated as a 
component part of the verb ; owing to the import of the compound 

* It may therefore be asserted, perhaps, that in all cases where the particle 
follows the noun (see the next Obs. and § 102.), it is an adverb and not a pre- 
position ; and that the case of the noun either depends on it (for adverbs too 
govern cases in German as well as in other languages), or on the relation 
indicated by it. 

■f To this tendency may in English be ascribed, among others, the practice 
of separating the preposition from its case, and placing it after the verb in the 
character of an adverb, when this case is a relative pronoun — a word of so 
little notice, that it is in English very often omitted ; as, " The land (which) 
we live in." 

f Wit is used adverbially also separately, and denotes that there are others 
besides to whom the predicate applies ; as, @te ftnb mtt @d)ult> imrnn, it is your 
fault too, or you are partly the cause of it; 3d) faf) e$ mtt nn, I looked at it too, 
implying " along with others", W\t untet signifies here and there, or new and 
then. 



§ 107.] PREPOSITIONS, 257 

verb having become so familiar to us, that the particular modification 
of the separable particle is overlooked; as, jemanben in eine $amilie 
etttfiibrcn, to introduce (lit. to lead in) somebody into a family ; tV(0<X§ atl5f 
finem 2?Udjje aUsjie&en, to extract (to write out) something from a book; 
3$ fe&e e$ i&m an bm 9Ul<jen an, / read it in his eyes. 

Obs. 2. When the particles au$, bwxd), and U6er, follow the noun to 
which they refer, they all denote throughout, and take the noun in the 
accusative; as, (5r ftanb bte ^ange $l*ebic;t ails, he was standing through- 
old the sermon ; 2Bir Hieben ben ganjen ©ommer uber (or burri)) auf 
bem Canbe, we stazd throughout the summer in the country. As the 'pre- 
position au» always governs the dative, and as the adverb fcinburcf) may 
be substituted, in such instances, for each of the three particles, it seems 
more correct to consider them in these cases as mere adverbs denoting 
extent, — a relation generally requiring the accusative case. 

Obs. 3. In conclusion we add the following remarks : l.) The English 
particles before, after, and since, each of which is used in the character of 
a preposition, of an adverb, and of a conjunction, are in German ren- 
dered differently in each character; namely thus : 

Prep. Adv. Conj. 

Before, vox, Dor&er, ebe or beuor. 

After, nacfc, nacfc&er, nactybem. 
Since, feit, feitbem, feit or feitbem. 

As, ©v retfete t>or mix ab, eine ©tunbe becor fie anfam; fein 29ruber 

W&X ben 2a$ VOXfytX a&^evetfet, he departed before me an hour before she 
arrived; his brother had departed the day before; %d) fyabt ®te feit etnettl 

donate niclit gefefren, I have not seen you this month; 2Bie (niben ®ie 
fid) feitbem befunben ? how have you been since? @t ijt giiicfficfccr feit (or 

feitbem) er auf bem fianbe lebt, he is happier since he has lived in the coun- 
try. 2.) The adverbs t)0ran, »orau£, and ^UVOX, likewise signify before; the 
first implies a leading of the way, and being closely followed by others; 
as, ^)ev Oberjle rttt VOVan, bann fam, &c, the colonel rode before (at the 
head), then came, fyc. s $0Yau§ implies a considerable interval between 

the two parties; as, (Sin 25ebienter rourbe corau* gefd&icft urn ^fexbe 

$U beftelten, a servant was sent before to order horses. In reference to 
time, it generally implies anticipation, and may mostly be rendered by 
beforehand; as, V OXCl U 3 be^len, to pay beforehand ; %(i) freilC mid) Iltt 
'BOXClUy, / rejoice in the anticipation, or beforehand. 3ut>0V mostly refers 
to time, and has nearly the same import as V0X\)iX', as, 3$ bin nun fo 
flU$ alj) 3UD0V (or VOXfytX), T am now no wiser than before. — Notice also 
this phrase, VOX WW na#, or t\ad) WW VOX, before as afterwards, i. e. al- 
ways the same. 3.) The English particle by, when used adverbially, and 
not implying motion, is rendered by battel, baneben, or nafje ; as 9 he stood 
by, er jranb babei, or baneben,- close by, $an$ nafje, or bid;t babet. With 

z 3 



258 conjunctions. [J 108. 

verbs of motion, however, it is rendered by DOrbet or poriiber, and when 
governing a case, the latter is moreover preceded by a particular prepo- 
sition in German'; as, He just went by, iX fling fo eben porbet,or COriiber; 

We passed by that port, rotr fegelten an (or nor) jenem £afen t>oruber. 
— 2?oriiber (but not vorbei) is often used with the accessory idea of not 
tarrying, or not entering; as, ^0$ fcbnellen (&#Vttt3 miitft tbr COl'Uber 
eilen (Schiller's Wilhelm Tell), but with hurried steps you must pass by. 

THE CONJUNCTION. 

§ 108. The German conjunctions may, with much prac- 
tical utility, be divided into three classes — viz. into pure 9 
subordinative, and adverbial conjunctions. 

I. Pure conjunctions we shall call such as merely conjoin 
one proposition or clause* with another, without modifying 
the verb of the proposition they commence ; though some 
of them modify the preceding clause. — See Obs. 2. Thus 
if we say, @te .ginq nx#, Wlb (or a6er) er BlteB, she went away, 
and (or but) he remained, the second clause (viz. " he re- 
mained") has the same import as it would have without the 
preceding conjunction. 



The following is a list of them 



benn^/or. 

ober, or. 

entroeber — ober, either — or. 

fotf Dbl — &l$, both, or as well — as. 

aufier, 
au^enommen 



> unless, except. 



imb, and. 

aber, "1 

allein, >but. (See § 109, Obs. 3.) 

fonbern,J 

ntcfct allein, or ntdbt nur— fcnbern 

Cllldb, not only — but also. 
lia'ttlltcf), namely ; for. 

Examples. 

(5r if! ni#t allein select, fonbern er fmt audb vide ©rfalminy, not 

only is he learned, but he has also great experience ; @nttt>eber tX if? (or 
if? er) Wirfltcfc franf, Obev er ftellt f?d> ft, either he is really ill, or he 
feigns to be so ; 3$ f)abe fOWO&l btC SJtac&t aU ben Allien bajU, I have 
both the power and the will for it ; %$ WCXbe i&ttl nidbt* leiljen, auffer 

er ga&lt feine alte ©cljulb (or more commonly, aufer wenn er, &c), / 

shall lend him nothing, unless he pay his old debt. 

II. Subordinative conjunctions are such as render the 
clause* which they begin subordinate to, and merely expla- 

* By clause is meant any part of a sentence that has a nominative and a 



§ 108.] 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



259 



natory of, another (therefore called the principal) clause, 
— or more accurately speaking, they divest their verb of 
its assertion (i. e. of the quality of imparting anything as 
unknown to the hearer), and render the whole clause mere- 
ly a modifying phrase of the principal or assertive verb. 
Thus in the sentence, 3$ QWQ Weg, aU (iC fam, I went 
(may when she came, there is only one assertion or commu- 
nication, viz. "I went away"; but her coming, which, as 
a fact, may have been known to the hearer before, merely 
defines, like an adverb, the time of my going away. — See 
also Obs. 2. 

The following is a list of the subordinative conjunctions : 

tt?ei(, because. 

bfl, as, since; when. 

o6$letc&, 

mnntfM, v,^^-(See§i09, 
wennfaon, 1 °^ K) 
rcenn au#, 
wiewo&l, J 

tt tt g C a Cl) t C t, notwithstanding. 
\'0,as (SeeObs.3.and §109, Obs. 5.) 
jte — je or bejfO, the— the. (See 

Obs. 3.) 
ttne, like ; as. 

batt r[ X ' \in order that. 

auf ba£,J 
ba$, that. 
Ob, whether. 



&\§, as; when; than. 

in be HI, while; as; inasmuch as. 

tnbeffen (or itl&ejj), ) while. (See 

unterbeffen, J Ofo. 3.) 

roa'hrenb, dwnrcg. 
narj)bem, a/ter. 

i eit > \ since. 

fettbem, ) 

tfyt, before; rather than. 

bepor, fe/bre. 
bis, M«^i/. 
fobalb, «5 soorc as. 
nun, now Ma£. 
W?enn, if; when. 

f^i , \in case that. 

im #alte,J 
roo, -l 

VDOfern, kj/V provided that. 

bafern, J 

Examples. 

2Darten @ie, bi$ tdi $unic£ fomme, w«^ until I come back ; %$ fann 
e» 3&nen ntcfct fa&en, un#ead)tet 6ie mem $reunb fmb, I cannot tell it 

you, notwithstanding you are my friend; SDa&renfr CV nod) UberlegtC, fjatte 



verb. Thus, " When I went out, I met your friend, who looked very ill," the 
second part (" I met your friend,") is the principal clause, or the proposition 
strictly so called ; that preceding it is a conjunctional, and the last a relative 
clause. 



260 CONJUNCTIONS. [§ 108. 

t# e£ fc&Otl au^efii^tt, whilst he was yet reflecting, I had already exe- 
cuted it; $all§ (Sie metnen 2>mber fe&en fotlten, fo fagen 6te ifjm, &c, 

«« case you should see my brother, tell him, 8fc. — More examples will be 
found in the following observations, and in the next section; see 
also § 107, Obs. 3. 

Obs. 1. When the subordinate precedes the principal clause, the par- 
ticle fo is very often placed before the latter; as, Sfcac&bem fein ganged 
s $ermb*gen uerfdwenbet war, unb alk feine $veunbe ifm t?erlaffen 
fatten, fo blteb ifcm fein anbre$ Sftitte \, atf, &c, a/fer a// his fortune was 

spent, anddll his friends had forsaken him, there remained no other means for 
him, but,8fc.; 2)a e$ reyltete, fo blteb t# JU ^aufe, as it rained, I staid at 

home; Dbfc&on er retcb i|r, fo ijf er bod? nt#t geacfrtet, although he is 
rich, yet he is not esteemed. Most probably this fo, which, as we have 
seen, remains in English untranslated, was originally emphatic, and de- 
noted then, or in that case — just as one may say in English, " if that 
should happen, then, &c." — but it is now employed in such cases with- 
out any emphasis, conveying no distinct meaning, and serving only to 
show where the principal clause begins ; and its use is therefore, gene- 
rally, optional. Thus, for instance, in all the preceding examples it may 
be omitted without causing any change in the sense of the proposition. 
However, when the subordinate clause is long and complicated, this 
particle is seldom omitted ; and in some cases great ambiguity would 

arise from its omission. Thus,2Benn itf) rciifte, ba$ man mix bte ©telle 
Dertretgern wurbe, bate i# nic&t untevtfmma,tt barum ,• fo w urbe i# nie 

barilrtl anfraften, if I knew that they woidd refuse me the place did I not 
beg humbly for it, I would never solicit it. Without fo before the last 
clause, one might take the clause b'dU t$, &c. as beginning the princi- 
pal or assertive part of the sentence, and as denoting, I should not beg 
humbly for it, $c. It must however be observed, that fo is never used 
after the subordinate clauses beginning with bafj and Ob, nor after those 
defining the time within which, or before which, the action of the prin- 
cipal clause takes place — that is, those beginning with inbeffen, IMter* 
beffen, wa&renb, inbem, feitbem, beoor, and b\$. — The principal clause 
frequently takes ba before it, when referring to past time defined by 
the preceding subordinate clause; and sometimes the particle bann, 
when the preceding clause begins with wenn ; as, tyl§ if)tt1 enbltcfr aucfr 
btefe ^offnuna, cerfc&roanb, ba oerlie£ ifjn bet 9JiUtfc, when at last this 

hope too disappeared for him, (then) his courage forsook him; Xa blZ 
(Sonne aufging, ba gina. Cot& in 3 0ar em > literally, when the sun rose, 
then Lot entered into Zoar; Unb i$ iffttl n0# ba$ 2B0tt CntfaHeit, ba 
fl'e^t man'» POn ben Stiffen Wallen, and before these words had fallen 
from him, a throng was seen coming from the ships ; 2Benn bu UnfcfrtllbiO, 
bi)f, bann alle 9vacbe ailf ben 2?errat|)er, if thou art innocent, then ven- 
geance on the traitor. 



§ 108.] 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



261 



III. The adverbial conjunctions modify the verb of their 
clause like common adverbs. Thus in the sentence, Qt if? 
jufriebeil, Cttfo mug et ^Utcf lid) fci;n, he is content, consequently 
he must be happy, the particle alfo modifies the verb mii§ 
with regard to the cause of the necessity. These conjunc- 
tions are very numerous; but as, practically, they do not 
differ from common adverbs, there is no necessity for a 
complete list of them. 

The following are the principal conjunctions of this 
class : — 



and), also*, too. 
alfo*, 1 

folgltcl), I then, accordingly, con? 
Oemnacfy, [ sequently. 

mtnjin, J 

ba&er, *) 

barum, I . , 

*m<M, T there f° re ' 

be5wegen,J 

bann, or benn, then. (See § 109.) 



bodb, yet, nevertheless, however. 

bennocfc, still, yet. 

#Ietc{)WOf)l, yet, at the same time. 
jebO$, but yet, however. 
fogar, even. 

fonff, or else, otherwise. 
tfKtlS — U)etl$, partly— partly. 
Otelmefrr, rather ; on the contrary. 
Weber — nO#, neither— nor. 
JWar, it is true, indeed. 



Examples. 
(gtlen @ie, fonff fommen Wtr JU fpat, make haste, or else we shall ar- 
rive too late (fonjt is used also as an adverb denotmgformerly) ; 233ett Ctl* 

fernt fein #etnb ju fepn, fcabe i# t&m oielme&r jgewetfe meiner $reunb; 

f$aft 3C^ebcn,/«r/?-om 6«wg his enemy, I have, on the contrary, given him 

proofs of my friendship; weber in bet ©tabt, ttO# auf bem £anbe, no# 

fonff trgenb WO, neither in town? nor in the country, nor anywhere else ; 

X(jeil£ fonnte er nidt)t, tt)etl$ wollte er ntcfct, ^ar% he could not, partly 
he would not-, @r (jat m'ui) nerratfren ; folajicb (or alfo, bemnacfr, mit; 
Jjin) ijt er etn falser #reunb, unb ict> will ba&er (or bewegen, b*$* 
&al6, barum) wetter fetnen itmgang mit ifym fcaben, &? has betrayed me ; 

then he is a false friend, and 1 will therefore have no further intercourse 
with him. It will be perceived by this example, that be^wegen, bafjer, 
&c. imply an effect, and folgltcfr, alfo, &c. an inference or a conclusion. 
2llf0 is used often, like then in English, when we merely wish to satisfy 
ourselves regarding the substance of what has just been said ; as, ®ie 
Wtlltgen alfo ein, you consent then. 

Obs. 2. The characteristic distinction of the three classes adopted 



* The learner will see that the English also and the German alfo have dif- 
ferent meanings. 



262 CONJUNCTIONS. [§ 108 



here, may further be illustrated by the following three examples, the 
conjunctions of which belong respectively to the three classes: 1.) Qv 
fann ni#t fommen, benn er ijt fx ant, he cannot come, for he isill; 2.)@r 

fanit ntdbt fommen, Weil er franf t(J, Ae cawno* come, because he is ill; 

3.) @r ifj franf, bafjer fann er ni#t fommen, he is ill, therefore he can- 
not come. In the first example, his being ill, whilst it is given as a rea- 
son, is, at the same time, communicated as a fact supposed not to be 
known to the hearer ; whilst in the second sentence, the same circum- 
stance is given merely as a cause, but as a fact it may have been known 
to the hearer before : the verb is therefore, without any assertion, just 
like a verbal noun*; and, indeed, "because he is ill," is just the same 
as the phrase " because of his illness," in which there is no verb. These 
two conjunctions (benn and trert) have however this in common, that 
they introduce a clause as a modification of another clause, by which 
they differ from the third particle (barjet*), which indicates the cause 
of the verb of its own clause, and thus modifies it like any other 
adverb f. — From this difference in the function of the three classes of 
conjunctions arises also the difference in the position of the verb in the 
conjunctional clauses of each class, which the learner must have noticed 
in the above examples • — namely, the pure conjunctions, having no in- 
fluence upon the import of their verb, have none either on its position, 
which is just the same as it would be without the conjunction ; the sub- 
ordinate conjunctions, divesting the verb of its assertion, cause it, ac- 
cording to what has been said § 89, Obs. 3, to be placed after its de- 
pendents; and, lastly, the adverbial conjunctions, when beginning the 
clause, cause the verb to be placed after its nominative, just like com- 
mon adverbs in that position. — See the order of words in the Syntax. 

It must however be observed, that jtebocfr and tnbe{Ten, however, and 
bo# when used in the same sense, are so kindred to the pure conjunc- 
tion after, that, when placed at the beginning of the sentence, the nomi- 
native may be placed before or after the verb; as, @r »erfpra$ gu font: 
men, boch (or jebocf), or inbeffen) er fam nt#t— or bocb Oebocfr, &c) 

fam er nilbt, he promised to come, yet he did not come. The same license 



* Hence the verbs of most subordinate clauses are in many languages, espe- 
cially in Latin and Greek, rendered by participles. — See the use of participles 
in the Syntax. 

t The difference between the second and third class of conjunctions is ana- 
logous to that between relative, and personal, or demonstrative, pronouns. 
Thus for instance, if we say, " Here is the book which I bought," the rela- 
tive deprives its verb of assertion, rendering the whole clause a mere definitive 
of its antecedent (" the book 5 '). But if we say, " Here is the book, I bought 
it (or that)," the pronoun {it or that) has no other function than that of de- 
noting the object of its verb, the latter remaining independent or assertive.— 
See also the next Obs., and the difference between the conjunction i><ij3 and 
the definitive fcoS, page 265. 






§ 108.] CONJUNCTIONS. 263 

obtains with the conjunction entweber, either,— See the example ent> 
Weber if? er, &c, page 258. 

Obs. 3. The preceding remark regarding the influence of the conjunc- 
tion on the position of the verb, is particularly useful with the subjoined 
particles, which are used both as subordinative and adverbial conjunc- 
tions, or as adverbs, and it is often by the position of the verb alone 
that their meaning can be ascertained. 

These particles are, 

Subordinative import. Adverbial import. 

ba, " as, since; then, there. 

bam it;, in order that; iviththat. 

inbem, as, while; this moment. 

tnbefleit, \ whUe . meanwhile. 

unterbefTen,J 

HUH, now that; now, at this time. 

feitbcm, since ; since (the time referred to by the 

previous proposition ; see p. 257). 
fo, as ( — as) ; so. 

Thus,$ter ifKSelb, bamit <Ste i&re @#u(ben frega&len fb'nnen, signifies, 

here is money in order that you may pay your debts; but bflttlit fc'niKtt 
@ie tfcre (Sd&lllben be^a^len would signify, with that you may pay your 

debts; @r feat fify immer gut fcetragen, fo vkl i# wei£, means, he has 

always behaved well, as far as I know; but fo Diet Weij? icfr denotes, so 
much I know. (See also § 109, Obs. 5.) 3?Utt er mt# ni#t ttie&r 
brattC^t, fommt er nie JU mtr, now that he does not want me any more, 
he never comes tcr me; 9httt 6rau#t er mid) ttitfjt ttie&r, now he does 

not want me any more; 3$ enbigte meinen 25rief, inbeffen er bie 3eir= 

Utig la$, I finished my letter whilst he was reading the newspaper ; but 
inbeffen (or unterbeffen) la6 er, &c. signifies meanwhile he read, Sfc. 

The above remark applies also to the conjunction ie. Thus in the 
sentence, ^e (anger wir marten, ie unentf#(o|fener roir un$ jeigen, ie 

(or beffo) fcfjlimmer madden WIV e$, the longer we wait, [and] the more 
irresolute we show ourselves, the worse we render it, we see at once that 
the second clause (\t unentfcfrloffener, &c), from its verb being last, is 
modifying like the preceding, and not modified like the following 
clause ; in other words, that the second ie is a subordinative, and not an 
adverbial conjunction. In English this can be known only by the con- 
junction and being placed before it. In Schiller's poem 2)ie ^UnfHev 
there is a period of eleven clauses, each beginning with ie, of which the 
first three are subordinate or modifying clauses, and all the others prin- 
cipal or modified clauses ; which, but for the position of the verb, would 
for the general reader be difficult to ascertain. 



264? CONJUNCTIONS. [§ 109. 

§ 109. The import of most of the conjunctions enume- 
rated in the preceding section may be sufficiently under- 
stood from the English translation annexed to them. We 
must however notice here a few of them, which require 
some further explanation, and add some observations con- 
cerning different conjunctions which, in several instances, 
appear to have a synonymous import. 

$Ut# 1.) Too, also, besides : @r weifj e$ aucb, he knows it too ; }(u# ill 
n0# biefe£ $U bemevf Ctt, ba$, &c, besides, there is this to be observed, that, 

$c. 2.) Even: $Tu# ber SBeifefre iff nicbt ganj fe&lerfrei, even the wisest 
is not entirely free from faults. 3.) It implies concession when joined with 
fd, or with particles which may be used as interrogatives (see § 97, 
Obs. l.)j also in such expressions as, 9)?ag er aucb fotttttien, WCIUl nur, 
&c, let him come, if only, fyc. 4.) Indeed, or to be sure, implying " in 
accordance with the antecedent;" as, @r if? gut fcelofjttt, ab(V er f)at 
e§ aUCjj Derbicnt, he has been well rewarded, but indeed he deserved it ; 

3'cb fcabe ben ganjen Sag gearfceitet; audi bin i# fo miibe, bafj, &c, 

I have worked all day ; and indeed I am so tired, that, fyc, 5.) In ques- 
tions it often implies doubt, and must be rendered by " are you sure," 
or "is it certain;" as, %ft 65 au$ Wflftr? are you sure it is true? Jlpafre 
iffy ifjn aitcb te$t cerjtanben? am I sure I understood him rightly? 
2>arf icb 3& nen au# trauen? may I safely trust you?— Joined with 

wenn nur, it implies an anxious hope or wish; as, 2Benn er e$ nur 

au# ni#t Pergigt, / hope he does not forget it. 6.) It is often used to 
convey irony or reproof; as, ^e#t }£ e £ fluc ^ 3eit ba^tt, now is the 

right time for it, surely; 2Barum war id) au# ein fclcfter 9lavv, e$ iftm 

$U fa gen ? why was I fool enough to tell it him? 

2)ann,betin,#2<?rc.— 2>ann is more emphatic than benn*, and denotes 
mostly a sequel (see § 97); accordingly, it is used often as a correlative 
of wentt (§ 108, Obs. 1.), and also as a kind of ordinal; as, ©rf? (erne, 
bann fpielt, first learn, then play. In all such cases the particle has the 
verbal accent in both languages. 2>enn, on the other hand, besides 
its causal import (see Obs. 4), corresponds to the English unemphatic 

then-, as, 2)u Hft gelernt, fagfr bu; gut, fo fpiete benn, you have 

* In Old German the forms wenn and benn did not exist, ronnn and bann 
having been used both as adverbs and conjunctions ; the latter being merely 
a figurative use of the former. But as the clear sound of a, when carelessly 
pronounced, is apt to drop into the dull sound of e, bann and voann have be- 
come benn and n>enn in all those instances where they have no emphasis or ver- 
bal accent— as is chiefly the case in their conjunctional use ; but in the cases 
where they have the verbal accent, the original a has been preserved. Thus 
we say, SBann fomtnt er? when does he come? 5Cenn er fommr, fage ifym, ba$, 
&c, when he comes, tell him that, tyc. 



§ 109.] CONJUNCTIONS. 265 

learned, you say ; well, play then ; ^\t €$ betttt Wafrr? is it then true? 
In some interrogative clauses it may be rendered by well, and in 
some subordinate sentences, by indeed or in fact ; as, £Bie freftnben @te 

fid) benn? well, how do you do? (&$ war ein blofes 9J?if»erfranbm£, 

W)te ba3 benn Cft ber ^aU tft, i£ was a w<?re misunderstanding, as in- 
deed is often the case. 

1b&$, that. — This conjunction must not be confounded with ba$, the 
nominative and accusative of the neuter gender of the article, and of 
the demonstrative and relative pronouns; as, ^a# eingtye 25crlangci1, 
ta§ icb babe, if?, ba$ er foramen mbd)te,- ba$ rciivbe raid) freuen, the 

only desire that I have, is, that he would come ; at that I should rejoice. 
It will be seen from this example, that the only difference between the 
relative and conjunctional clause is, that the former limits its antecedent 
OSerlanCjCll), and the latter explains its object*. This conjunction is 
frequently omitted in English ; which can be done in German only when 
its clause forms the accusative case of a verb; as, @ie lfiffen er tft %t)Y 
$T£tinb, you know {that) he is your friend. But even in such instances 
b<X$ is not omitted after a negative, and seldom after an interrogative, 
clause; as, @ie Wtflen ntd)t, ba$ CV %t)V #veunb tfr, you do not know 
that he is your friend ; 2Betf? er, ba$ id) bier Hn ? does he know (that) I 
am here ? Upon the whole it would be safest for the learner never to 
make use of this ellipsis. In the following and similar phrases begin- 
ning with ba§, some introductory verb is supplied by the mind : 2)a£ 

\6) ifyn nie gefehen battel (supply, id) wollte), would that I had never 

seen him. Thus also, 2)a|* ©ie ja IttC&tS vmatfyen, [I hope] that you 
will not reveal anything ; Qafc Site bOC|) trainer reben mtiffen, [it is vex- 
atious] that you must be always talking. — Notice also these expressions : 
2)flf* id) ntd)t tt)U§te, not that I know of, or not to my knowledge ; Qafi 

id) fein 9?arr ware, I shall not be such a fool. 

9?amltd), namely, must not be confounded with namentlicj), which 
means especially, or more especially; as, @r fpriffyt bret @pra#en, 
na'ralid), (fngltfd), 2)eutfcJ), Uttb ^ranjbflfdh, he speaks three languages, 
namely, English, German, and French ; — @r fprtcht mefcrere @prad)en 

fe&r gut, namentlicf) (or fcefonberS) (StoflUfcfi unb 2)eutfd), he speaks 

several languages very well, especially English and German. Fre- 
quently, however, ntiraUd) is used in explaining circumstantially the 
preceding summary sentence ; in which case it follows the verb of its 
clause, and may be rendered by for, or remain untranslated ; as, 2)aj? 



* If the conjunction is without an antecedent, that, or it, is understood as 
such ; the conjunction that being then equivalent to that (or it) that,— just as 
who is often used for he who; see § 65, Obs. 3, and especially the example 
o'u 3fjr fud)it, &c. Sometimes bcZmqen, for the reason, or in order, is understood 
as the antecedent. 

2 A 



266 CONJUNCTIONS. [§ 109. 

iff eine bet mevfrcUrbiyffen 25ibltotfjefen, fie befi'fct namltcf? nidbt nur 

feljr feltClie ^Ilt^gabcn, &c, this is one of the most remarkable libraries, 
(for) it 2?ossesses not only the rarest editions, fyc. 

@o 10, So. thus: ©arum fo fpat? why so late? @r fpradj fo, Ae 
spate tibv. 20 ^«: breimal fo alt, three times as old; rtccf) einmal 

fo QVOp, as /org*? again (see also Q&s. 5.). 30 It i- s often used as a con- 
nective of a modifying and modified clause, and is not translated when 
the verb of the modifying clause is devoid of assertion (§ 89. Obs. 3.) 
— that is, when it begins with a subordinative conjunction (see § 108. 
Obs. 1.), or with St>a» denoting as for, or contains any of the expres- 
sions noticed $ 97. Obs. 1, as answering to the English ever (in whoever, 
&c); as, JH>a? micb betrifft, fo geffefre t#, ba§, &c, as for me, I con- 
fess that, %c\ 2Ber bu aucb biff, fo biff bu bem ©efege unterworfen, 

whoever you be, you are subject to the law ; %<$) mag tfjUlt Wa§ ich 

will, fo iff er unjufrieben mit mtr, do what I will, he is dissatisfied with 
me. But when the verb of the modifying clause is assertive, fo has in 
English some corresponding conjunction; as, $Urfbte (Sott, fo bat f ft 
bU feinCU 5)?Cllfchen f Uv#ten, /<?ar God, and you need not fear man ; 
Raum tfav er etngetreten, fo Qtltg fie WCg, scarcely had he entered, when 

she went away; @$ bauerte nidfot Ififtge, fo fam auc& fein 2}ruber, ft 

was not long, when (or before) his brother also came. 4.) In colloquial 
language it is sometimes used for ofmefun, besides; as, 3'cb t&ue e£ 
gome; id) (jabe fo (or O&fie&in) ntt&tS JU t&Ult, I do it willingly ; be- 
sides, I have nothing else to do. In conjunction with beittt it is often a 
mere expletive, see the last example, p. 264. When the English so has 
a pronominal import, it is rendered by ba$ or ft>; and when equivalent 
to provided, or if only, by tt>ClM 11 lit ; as, He is your enemy, but I am 
not so, (5r iff ^ffr geillb, aber id? bin e$ nic&t ; He does anything, so he 
is paid for it, @r tfjut aUe£ wenn fr nur bafiir frega&lt wirb. Formerly 
the German fo was likewise often used in the sense of if; in modern 
German this is the case only in poetry, and in the expression, ©0 (Sett 
ttHlf, please God. 

28enn denotes both «>fo» and if— see Ofos. 4 and 6. In the latter 
import it is often omitted, and then the nominative is placed after its 
verb; not merely as in English when the finite verb is in the imperfect 

—as, ©are ba$ tra&r, oa'tte er fie unrt'ltdb penrat&en, bann, &c; were 

this true, had he really betrayed her, then, §c, — but also in all other 

tenses ; as, tgepb ijrr veicfc (for roenn ibv reicfr fei;b), fo fjabt $r $reunbe, 

if you are rich, you have friends. When if is used in the sense of 
whether, it must be rendered in German by Ob ; as, See if it rains, 
fefjeil (Sig Ob (not irenn) e* recmet. The particle iro is sometimes used 
for tventt; as, W0 llitiht, if not ; \VC mb\}lid), if possible. We may 
say also ftl$ ob, for &l§ menu, as if— ©enn anber* denotes if at all; 

as, 2Denn id) i&n anbers fenne, if I know Mm at all. 



§ 109.] CONJUNCTIONS. 267 

3tt?ar, indeed, it is true, is used as a correlative to afcer, allein, or 
bodb — see Obs. 3. In conjunction with unb, it introduces a qualifica- 
tion as an after-thought, in order to draw particular attention to it; 

as, @r gab i(nr bas> ©efb, unb jwav mit oieler $erettroiingfett, he gave 

her the money, and with much readiness too. 

Obs. 1, The conjunctions corresponding to although (see p. 259) 
are often used indiscriminately. However, in reference to a known 
fact, we more commonly use the compounds with cb, whilst in re- 
ference to an hypothesis, or when although is equivalent to "even 
if," those with wenn are preferable; as, Dbfd)0n v or Cbgletd?) e$ reg= 
itetC, ging ex bod) (HIS, although it rained, he went out ; 3$ fonnte 

j&nen ba5 ntdbt fagen, wenn ©ie aucb (or wenn @ie gleicfr) bdfe 

^avilbet triirben, / could not tell you that, even if it made you angry. 
The conjunctions compounded with Ob and itfenil are, generally, se- 
parated, as in the last example, by the interposition of the nomina- 
tive, and sometimes also by that of other words if they are monosylla- 
bles; as, £)fr id) $n fdton (or gleicn) Unne, although I know him. 2Denn 
is often omitted in such cases, and then the nominative is placed after 
the verb; as, %\i er gleicb (or aticf)) arm, although he is poor.— See 
wenn, in the preceding page. 

Obs. 2. Regarding the adversative conjunctions, as they are called, boct), 
bennod), jebocfr, gfetci)tt>0&f, and tubeffen, we observe as follows:— Sen; 
nod) and bod) imply the contrary of the usual effect of the antecedent 

clause; as, @r bat alleS wa$ er wiinfd&t, unb bennocb (or bed?) ift er 

nidbt glUCf ltd), he has all that he wishes, andyet he is not happy. 2)0dj (but 
not benno4)) often implies concession, like though in English ; in which 
case it usually follows the verb, and is unemphatic; as, (5r ift nidbt glilcf; 

ltd?, unb er &at bod) (not bennodb) alle»roa5 er wiinfein, he is not happy, 

and yet (or though) he has all that he wishes. ©letd)n?0()l has the same 
meaning as bennoefo, only that it is less emphatic, for it implies a kind 
of after-thought, and is therefore seldom used when the opposition of 
the two clauses is the principal aim of the sentence ; as, Dbfd)0n er fe&r 

reid) if?, fo wollte er un$ bennccb" (or bocjj) nidtt fjelfen ; gleidwo&l 

|)aben tt)ir ifyn Oft oerpfItd)tet, although he is very rich, still he would 
not help us ; and yet we have often obliged him. — ^fcbod? c ' oes n °t i m pty 
an inconsistency like bennod), but a restriction, anticipating an erroneous 
surmise with regard to a concomitant circumstance, and may be rendered 

by however, or but yet ; as, @r ad)tet unb liebt fie; jebod) befucbt er 

fie felten, he esteems and loves her ; but yet he seldom goes to see her.—r 
^nbeffen has the least adversative power of the preceding particles, and 
is therefore sometimes accompanied by bod), to render the clause more 
adversative. It answers to the English at the same time, or however ; 

as, @r (jat Unredn; inbeffen muf? man geflefjen, ba$, &c, he is wrong; 

2 a 2 



268 CONJUNCTIONS. [§ 109. 

at the same time one must confess that, &c; %ii) (jabe IVOdV Wenia, 3 e ' f > 

inbeffen mein 2?erfpred)en will id) bed) fatten, / have, indeed, little 

time, however I will still keep my promise. See also § 108. Obs. 2. 

Obs. 3. The three adversative conjunctions aflein, aber, and fonbern, 
all denote but. — *iHllein implies an impediment to the result expected 
from the antecedent clause; in which latter %Wat, indeed, is often em- 
ployed as a correlative conjunction to allein. %b?X is used in the 
same restrictive sense, and also in all cases where the English but 
implies an addition or a transition; as, ($r i|r jrcar fteleljrt, allein (or 
aber) Ct t>at feihC @rfafrvimy, he is indeed learned, but he has no ex- 
perience ; 2Dtr tvollten autfge&en. allein e$ recjnete, we wanted to go out, 

but it rained;— Qv if? tf Dig, aber (not allein) Mtf^t eitel, he is proud, 
but not vain; %htX tt>a* WOllen @ie benit ? ^ w/zatf do you want then? 
^OUbCtn implies a correction cf an erroneous opinion expressed in the 
preceding clause, which is therefore always in the negative ,• as, (5r 
i\t nidn btn adtuen, fonbern ben gwblften 3Kai abgereifet, he did not 

depart the eighth, but the twelfth of May. But we would say, (5r i|t ben 

aftten nidn ab#ereifet; er rr-irb aber ben gwj'diften yanj gercif? abreifen, 

he did not depart the eighth ; but he will certainly depart the twelfth ; 
for here the second clause is not a correction of, but a simple addition 
to, the former clause. 

We may also remark here that the English bid, if equivalent to 
" only", is rendered by ntir; as, but one week, nur eine 2I)CC|je. If 
equivalent to '* except", it may be rendered by ailf?er (see § 102. Obs.), 
or auoyenommen ; but more frequently, if the previous expression con- 
tains or involves a negation, it is rendered by al?, otherwise by ttur 

nid)t; as, None but he coidd do it, niemanb aU er fonnte e5 tfcun; 

Nothing but vexation, nidHs &H 35erbmf?; Nowhere bid here, niryeitb$ 
a!6> t)itt; Who but she? Wet fonf? al$ fie? Anything but that, alk$ 
nur bat nid)t. But for is mostly rendered by wetW nicht; as, He 

would do it, but for her, er trait-be e£ t&un, wenn fie nidbt ware. The 

last but one is translated by ber (bie or bai) COVle^tC. 

Obs. 4. Causation is denoted by ba, as or since; inbem, inasmuch as; 
Will, because ; and benn, for. These particles answer exactly to the 
English conjunctions annexed to them ; and the learner may therefore 
know from the idiom of his own language, when they may be used in- 
discriminately, and when one or the other must be used exclusively. 
Thus, in answering a question beginning with warum, why, we must 
use rcetf, like because in English. — See also § 108. Obs. 3. — We may 
further observe, that a clause with inbem, inasmuch as, mostly follows 

the principal clause, as in English; as, Gtx fennte nicht femmen, in- 
bem er ntd)t eitlgehlben n?ar, he could not come, inasmuch as he was not 
invited. 



§ 109.] CONJUNCTIONS. 269 

Obs. 5. Comparison is denoted by alS, trie, fo, and je — beflo. — tyl? 
corresponds both to the English than and as: (§V \\t retdbet al5 id), 

aber nicbt fo xcid) ali man yerob'bnlid) §iaubt,heis richer than I, but 

not so rich as is generally thought. In many instances roie is used indis- 
criminately with at$,'in the sense of as; as, %d) ^abe fo Diel S^ecfrt bajll, 
al$ ©ie, or roie @te, / //aue «5 much right to it as you. It would ap- 
pear, however, from those cases in which one or the other of these 
particles is preferred by usage, that the comparison with al$ defines 
the exact extent of a quality or energy, and is therefore restrictive, 
whilst rote implies an eminent but indefinite degree of it. Thus in the 
following instances, -in which the comparison is restrictive, roie is un- 
usual: <Sie iff e&etl fO Unfc&Ul&tg a\i UltylUtflicfr, she is as innocent as 
unfortunate; ©0 langC al5 id) Ubt, as long as Hive; (§r battbelte refjjt 

a\$ (not roie) i&clbat, after abfd?eulic^ aH S)ienfe&, he acted rightly 

as a soldier, but abominably as a man. — In the following and similar 
expressions, on the other hand, rote alone is used: — ftufgebracfyt role 

er roar, irritated as he was; @r t|l fo gefc&icft, roie feiner oon utts, 

he is cleverer than any of us; (&X liebt fie rote eine ©cftroeffer, he 
loves her like a sister, (at? elite &d)X0ift£X, would imply that she 
was his sister) ; 2)a£ £inb if? fo fcbbn roie tin @ttyel, the child is as 
beautiful as an angel; and so in all other comparisons with an object 
proverbial for the quality in question, so that the comparison is more a 
simile than an exact definition of the extent of the quality. — This par- 
ticle (roie) further corresponds to the English like, and to as denoting 
"in the same manner", or " according to"; as, S&it bet* £>err, fo ber 
£ne$t, like master, like man; j$ I*&* Kgt roie fottf?, I live now as 
formerly; 3)? act) en ®ie 03 roie tcf?, do as I do ; roie id) bbre, as I un- 
derstand. We say, however, al§ (not roie) Ob, as if. 

©0, as we have seen from the above examples, is used as a correla- 
tive of ql6 and roie, and answers both to the English so and as. When 
the word between the particles fo and aH is an adjective or adverb, 
a\§ is often omitted, and the particle fo, from its including the sub- 
ordinative a\$, becomes itself a subordinative conjunction ; as, fo $& 

fc&roinb (al5) er laufen fonnte, as quick as he could run; fo lange id) 

i()tl feittte, as long as I have known him; fo XCafyX id) lebe, as true as I 
live. Of the same description are the compounds fobalb, as soon as, 
and infofettt, or in fo fent, in as far as, — the particle aU being under- 
stood ; as, fobalb (al») er mid) fab, as soon as he saw me ; ^nfofern 

(al5) er ibr $0rmuttb if?, iff e» feine $flidn, in as far as he is her guar- 
dian, it is his duty. When two adjectives of equal intensity, but of an 
opposite import, are compared, to render the antithesis more striking 
the defining or subordinate clause is placed before the other, and is 
construed in the above manner, i.e. with fo and the omission of al$; 

2a 3 



270 INTERJECTIONS. [§ 110. 

as, (So bumm (d(5) er ailiMt, fo (iftty if? er,/^ wjW as cunning as 
he appears stupid. The comparison with ie — je or bejtO, we have 
already noticed (§ 108. Obs. 3.). We have only to add, that befto is 
often used in the sense of " so much the" ; as, ^|t er tvefl ? btfio 
beifer, is he gone? so much the better. For beftO we often say UDI fo— 
see p. 248. — The phrase je tiad) bem signifies according as or to ; as, 

je nac& bem bie Umftanbe e£ erforbern, according as the circumstances 

require it. 

Obs. 6. The conjunctions al§, wenn, inbem, ba, and trie, besides 
their various other significations, are all used also in reference to time, 
answering to the English when and as ; with regard to which we ob- 
serve as follows : — Both ati and tt?enn denote when, the former in re- 
ference to definite or specified past time, the latter in reference to 
future time (whether specified or not), and unspecified past time; as, 

^1$ erauf bem £anbe lefcte, befuchte icfr ibn off, wenn er firfc unpafi; 

(iCT) fcefanb, when he lived in the country, I often went to see him, when 

he found himself unwell ; 3$ irerbe H 3&nen moryen geben, wenn id? 

,U 3^ n fomme, I shall give it you tomorrow, when I come to you. 
%\$ is used also in the sense of as: 9U$ (or inbem) id) fo U6er biefe 
iSegefren&eit nadbbactjte, fam ein 3)?ann git mir, &c, «* J was *A«# 

meditating on this event, a man came to me, fya. — ^nbetll is likewise used 
in the sense of as (see the last example) ; more commonly, however, it 
signifies in the moment that ; as, ^fnbem ber 2?ff£ nteberflt&r, btaniltf 
aUCt) fctJOn b<X$ ^JU?, the moment the lightning struck, the house was on 
fire. It is particularly employed when two simultaneous actions have 

one and the same subject ; as, ©e&en ©ie, fagte er, inbem er auf ein 

•tjaii? fjtnjeiyte, see, said he, pointing to a house. — 2Bte implies also (like 
inbem) an immediate succession of two events; and in the last example 
but one wit may be used for inbem. — ^a implies the same determina- 
tion of time as alv, though it is not often used in this sense, but more 
generally in that of causation.— See Obs. 4. 



THE INTERJECTION. 

§ 110. Interjections are generally arranged according 
to the emotions which the}' indicate. The following are 
of common occurrence: — Interjections of grief : ok) or adb 
(ah!) ; n?Ct), il?c{) or ait u?e£> (O woe!) ; kibev (alas !);— 
of joy: {)a, jacket, jltc&ljeifa (hey /); fylixtaty (huzza!);— of 
surprise or wonder : et or d ei, f)a, 1)0, f)Uttt or (jm ; — of dis- 
gust : pfni or ft (fte!) ; — of horror or terror : tya or jut \)\\ ; — 



§ 111.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 271 

of calling: £e, {Kba. folia, b\l (ho! there.'). The interjec- 
tion ff enjoins silence, or secrecy; i)ui indicates haste; l)a 
fyd, pleasure, or surprise, at making a discovery. Zopp 
denotes done! agreed!; \X>ol)latt, well then !• traiM, irulif ! 
verily ! (only in poetry); metn, I should like to know*. 

Obs. 1. Nouns, verbs, and other parts of speech, and even whole 
phrases, may in particular cases be considered as interjections; for 
instance, frtfcfr, fir, quick! frifcb" auf, away! \\\\Y\§, cheer up ! jtilfe, 
silence! t}(U, or &etl bit*, hail! ba§ @0tt erfrarme, Lord have mercy on 
us! or O heaven! herd), A«rA/ fief) &a, behold! fya\X or £a(t an, stop! 
ljev fcamit, ^ere m/#£ it! — See also the interjectional imperative, § 93. 
Obs. 2. 

To the above might be added all kinds of expressions implying sur- 
prise or swearing; as, po£ taufenb, or pog (Element ! or iiUe *jagel ! 
^appcrment ! (for (Sacrament); ber Saufenb! et ber ©eicr ! But 

these, and a great many more of this stamp, must be considered as 
low; though in dramatic works they are of frequent occurrence. 

Obs. 2. Some grammarians refer also to this part of speech such 
ejaculations as are mere imitations of sound; as, Jj)ilfcl) ! war er weg, 
whiz! and away he was; $\\<X&$\ bd bvtXd) C^, crack! and it was 
broken. But such imitations, though probably they formed the first 
attempts at speech, hardly deserve in a cultivated tongue the name of 
words. They are, however, not uncommon in popular poetryf. 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 

§ 111. In German, as in other languages, words are 
formed from others by derivation and composition ; and it 
is from these two resources that the German language 
has, from a comparatively small stock of words, acquired 
nearly the whole of its vast riches:}:. 

DERIVATION. 
The parts of speech to be considered under this head, 



* \Jttein ! foUte vo\>ljl bet SKkin nocf) fttefjen, / wonder whether the wine still 
flows. — [Goethe's Faust.) 

f Especially in Burger's ballads, where they often form whole verses. 
{ See note f, page 5. 



2?2 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 111. 

are substantives, adjectives, and verbs*, both derivatives 
and their primitives belonging chiefly to one or the other 
of these three classes. As primitivesf they are used in their 
grammatical root (§ 27. Obs.) only, and not in their in- 
flected form. The following cases, however, must be con- 
sidered as exceptions: — 

1.) The final e, and sometimes also the final eit, of the primitive is 
omitted in the derivative. Thus, from tt>etfe, wise; %X\thi, peace ; 
(Scfeatteit, shade, are formed 2Bet^ett. ivisdom ; frtebliii;, 'peaceable ; 
fdfrattig, shady. 2.) In some instances words are derived from the 
plural of substantives (see § 32. Obs. and note *, p. 273,) and the com- 
parative of adjectives (see § 114.) J. 3.) In the case of irregular verbs, 
words are derived not only from the grammatical root (i.e. the infini- 
tive without its ending en), but, frequently, also from the imperfect. 
Thus, from graven, to dig, is derived ©raker, digger ; and from its im- 
perfect (yrub) ®X Vibe, pit; gVUbeM, to investigate minutely, &c. ; — from 
fcfrnetben, to cut, ©cfynetber, tailor ; and from its imperfect (fcbnitt) ^er 
i&cbnttt, the cut; ©emitter, reaper, &c.§ 

Derivation is effected in two ways: 1. Without any 
change of the primitive, so that words belonging to different 
parts of speech have one and the same grammatical root|| ; 
as, bet 2}lu?5 the lightning ; bligeilj to lighten ;— ftulb, wild; 
ba$ 28ilb, the game ; — grim, green ,- fccts (Brim, the green ; 
crimen, to green. 

* The formation of adverbs has already been treated of (§94 seqq.), and 
the other parts of speech consist mostly of original words. 

-f- The expression is used here relatively — namely in reference to the word 
immediately derived from it, though it may itself be a derivative from another 
word. Thus, 5fud)t, flight, is the primitive of ftiicfyten, to put in security, and 
a derivative from fliefyen, to flee. Only those derivatives, we may add, can be 
treated of in this work, whose primitives are still current in the language, and 
preserved unchanged in the derivation ; the others being of little practical 
utility are omitted. For the same reason we notice in the following sec- 
tions only those annexes by which large classes of words are formed. 

X That the inflected adjective and the infinitive are sometimes used sub- 
stantively (§§ 52. and 91.) cannot be considered as an exception, as this use 
constitutes no derivation. 

. § Several derivatives are formed from the ancient plural of the imperfect 
(§ 86. Obs. 1.), especially those from verbs of the fifth class (§ 86.) ; as, bet 
©ptutifl, the leap ; bet ©cfyufi, the shot, from the old plural of the imperfects of 
fpritlfien and fdjiefjen. In a few instances there are derivatives both from the 
plural and singular; as, 23nn&, tie; 23unt>, league; — Zxmt, the drinking; 
Xvant, drink, potion. 

|| In the first example, however, and in many'similar cases, it is diffi- 
cult to ascertain which is the primitive and which the derivative. 



§ 112.] DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 273 

Obs. Transitive verbs derived in this way inflect the vowel of their 
primitive (if capable of it), not only when derived from other verbs 
(as, Wrren, to dry, from bomn, to get dry, to wither — see also § 84. 
Obs. 2.), but frequently also when derived from nouns, especially from 
adjectives. Thus, from ©tab!, steel; $aum, space; hohl, hollow; 
frumm, crooked ; JCtljm, tame, come the verbs jrcifrlen, to steel, harden ; 
raumen, to evacuate; fyo&Ien, to make hollow; ffU mm en, to curb; 
gasmen, to tame. On the other hand, neuter verbs of this kind seldom 
inflect the vowel of their primitive; and there are several instances in 
which from the same primitive two verbs, a transitive (or reflective) 
and a neuter verb, are derived, distinguished only by the vowel inflec- 
tion. Thus, from the adjectives fvanf, sick; warm, warm; taut, aloud, 
come the verbs, franfen, tobesick, and franfeit, to grieve, vex; evwatm-- 
en, to get warm, and ertrarmen, to warm; lauten, to sound (in an in- 
transitive sense), and fall ten, to ring (the bell). 

2. By means of prefixes and annexes ; the former, with 
the exception of $e, are used in the formation of verbs 
only; the latter chiefly in that of substantives and adjec* 
tives. The derivatives formed by annexes containing the 
vowels e or i (ase, cr, i$, lief), &c. §§112 & 113), frequently 
inflect the vowel of the primitive, especially diminutives ; 
but the derivatives formed by any of the other annexes (as 
faw, imcj, Ct, t)dt, &c), or by prefixes, leave the primitive 
vowel unchanged*. Except those in kin (§ 32. Obs.), and 
collective nouns formed by the prefix $e {§ 115), which 

always inflect the primitive vowel. 

> 

ANNEXES OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

J 112. Of the annexes d)W and lent, as forming diminu- 
tives, we have already treated § 32. Obs. ; and of inn, as 
forming feminines from masculines, § 33. The annexes 
treated of in this section form either abstract (see however 
Obs. 3.) or collective nouns, with the exception of it and 
Un#j which, for the- most part, form nouns denoting per- 
sons. The principal annexes by which substantives are 
formed are the following : — 

* Such derivatives as 2t6gbttcret, idolatry ; 93rtit>erfd)<ift, fraternity, and a 
few others, are derived from the plural of their primitive nouns (2it>gotter, 
■©ruber), and form therefore no exception. 



274 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 112. 

1.— t* By this annex abstract substantives are derived from verbs, 
and from primary* adjectives denoting a physical quality; the latter 
derivatives inflect the vowel of the primitive, but not the former ; 

as, £iebe, love ; ©age, saying; ®ake, gift, from the verbs, iteben, fagen, 

gab (imperfect of QCben — see § 111. Obs.); and Siefe, depth; Oatlge, 
length; ©i'bfe, greatness, from the adjectives, ttef, lang, and CjfO^. 
Some of those derived from verbs denote the instrument of the action 
expressed by their primitives; as, bk ©cbttetbe, the' edge, sharp end; bk 
2)tnbe, band or bandages ; btC fialU, the trap, Sec. 

2. — eif and — erctf (Engl. y and ere/) form substantives from others, 
and from verbs, — the former annex being used when the primitive ends 
in el or er, the latter in all other cases. They denote 1.) a state, or an 
action — generally with the accessory idea of obloquy ; as,9?aubem, rob- 
bery; igflat>eret, slavery; Xbipelei, doltishness, — from the nouns, .0?aubcr, 
iSflare, and X'dlpet; $eilCt)e(et, hypocrisy ; 9?aferet, madness,— from the 
verbs heilCtKln and vafen. Sometimes a disagreeable frequency or re- 
petition is implied; as, bte £(Ulferei, bk ©cfrftageret, the {tiresome) 
running, talking. 2.) The usual place of the occupation, or the abode 
of the person, expressed by the primitive; as, 'S'VUCferei, printing- 
office; ^taWtXiX, brewery ; $ifrf)Crei, fishery ; (Jinfl'ebelei (or @inflCb= 
lerd, from (Jinfiebler, hermit), hermitage. A few denote art, or craft ; as, 
^Sta^Uxi'l, painting ; ©cb'tietbevet, a tailor's business. A few others have 
a collective import; as, Otetteret, cavalry ; Hnbet'Ci, lands. 

3. — fr answers to the English annex er, and sometimes to the 
noun man\. It forms derivatives from verbs and substantives (also 
from numerals; for which see p. 118); as, 5}efev, reader ; XvagCt, por- 
ter ; £utfcfrer, coachman; igiirger, citizen, burgher, — from lefen, to 
read; tragen, to carry ; ftutfdbe, coach, &c. ; — and further from proper 
names of places and countries, to designate an inhabitant or native of 
that place (see Obs. 4). Some few of these derivatives insert n before 
the annex eV; as, ©cijllfbner, debtor; £)Uttner, cottager, — from ©cblllb, 
debt; £)Utte, cottage. 

Obs. 1. In several instances the Germans use the participle present 
substantively, and the English a derivative in er ; as, ber cRetfenbe, 

* That is, not derived from other words. 

f Though ei in these endings originated in a corruption of the foreign ie 
or ia (see note, p. 30), this spelling is now used in the above annexes only in 
forming German words from others ; but in words adopted entirely from the 
French, or the learned languages, the original ending ie or ia is now always 
written ie ; as, ilrtillerie, artillery; Slj'tfonomie, astronomy — except SDjrnnnei, 
tyranny ; Sitanei, litany ; (gncrtfrci, sacristy, and perhaps a few others. We 
may here notice also, that the words derived from Latin nouns in las, which 
in English end in ty, end in German in tat ; as, Urfrnnitnt, urbanity. 

\ Originally er signified man, and is supposed to be identical with the pro- 
noun er, he. 



§ 112.] DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 275 

the traveller; ber Ceibetlbe, the siifferer ; bie fitefcenben, the {two) 
lovers, &c. 

4. — freit and — fett (Engl, hood or ^e«of) form abstract nouns from 
adjectives, and a few from substantives*, hett being used when the pri- 
mitive either is without any annex, or ends in en or ertt, and fett in all 
other cases ; as, $linb&eit, blindness; @eftinbf)eit, health; <ScI?Ucfrtevn: 
tjctt, coyness; £)aj?ltC()fett, ugliness; CanyfatTlf Cit, slowness, — from the 
adjectives bltnb, gefunb, &c, and £tnbj)eit, childhood; ®0tti)(it ; god- 
head; $)iamtfjett, manhood, — from the substantives £tnb, (Sott, &c. — 
These derived from adjectives ending in 1 05 or haft, an( * a few de- 
rived from others, for the most part ending in a lingual (§ 7.), insert ig 
before the annex fett; as, ^Ulflpftgfdt, helplessness ;,2)atierfjaftigfeit, 
durability; Sftattigfett, lueakness ; ©tl'crittnnbtgfett, swiftness; (5ti$i$- 
fett, sweetness, — from the adjectives, friilfToS, baiterfwft, matt, gefcfcwinb, 
and fiifj. 

5. — I illy answers mostly to the same annex in English, forming sub- 
stantives from verbs, adjectives, and other substantives, and generally 
imparting the accessory idea of dependence, or littleness, and sometimes 
that of contempt, especially in those derived from substantives ; as, 
&d\\$Ut\§, sue/cling ; 'JJitetling, hireling; ^Unblttlg, foundling ; 3b'»(tng, 
pupil, Sieve; 9?eultji)j, novice; iMebltilg, darling, favourite ; 3artltng, 
an effeminate man; 28t0ltng, witling; 'S'ic&terltng, poetaster. Several 
of these derivatives, however, do not imply any helplessness or con- 
tempt; as, £ammerlmg, chamberlain; 9?acbTcmWltng, descendant; 
3ttnllUtg, twin, &c. 

6. — ntf? (Engl, ness) forms nouns of various meanings, from verbs and 
past participles ; as, (Srlailfrntf?, permission; <§reigni£, event; A)tnber= 
nt£, hindrance, — from the verbs erlaubejl, &c— ©ebacbtntfj, memory; 
©efangntf, prison, — from the past participles gebacfH, gefangen. These 
are derived from adjectives: $tnfrermj3, darkness; (§ehetmnt§, secret; 
and ; 2Bilbntjj, wilderness. 

7. — fcf)aft (Engl. ship). Most substantives of this ending are de- 
rived from others, but some from adjectives and past participles. They 
are either abstract or collective nouns ; as, $reimbfcr)aft, friendship ; 
jgOtfcfraft, message; 25etettfcl)aft, readiness; ©efattgenfcijflft, captivity, 
— from ftXi\M\b,friend ; 25otC, messenger ; bevett, ready ; and gefangenv 
imprisoned. Examples of collectives are, ^ie $Urgen#aft, the body of 
citizens; 3)? a nnfd) a ft, ere iv ; 23arffi)aft, cash. 

* Hence there are few nouns in ftett answering to English derivatives in 
hood, the latter being derived chiefly from substantives. On the other hand, 
in English, the formation of abstract nouns from adjectives being effected 
principally by the ending ness, whilst the German annex ni£ is very rarely 
so used, most English nouns in ness correspond to German nouns in fyeit, 
fett, or c, and very few only to such as end in nifj. 



276 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 112. 

8. — tfjUttt (Engl.cfom). Nouns of this termination are derived from 
other substantives — a few from adjectives. They denote either domi- 
nion or possession of their primitive, or, more commonly, the abstract idea 
of it; as, JperjOgtfjlMI, dukedom; @ii$entf)Um, property; $etbentf)Um, 
heathendom ; (S(jrif?entf)Um, Christianity (for Christendom we more gene- 
rally say (Sfjriirenijeit) ; £bnigt&um, royalty (not kingdom, which answers 
to jtb'nigrdft)'; 9ntm&um, antiquity. 

9. — UNO, (Engl. wg, Anglo-Saxon ing, or wrcg). Nearly all nouns of 
this ending are derived from verbs, and denote the abstract action of 
their primitive ; as, bte D^echnutlCj, the reckoning ; 3BarniM>), warning; 
3«idbnung, drawing ; Jrjotfming, %?<?; 5Tnna&Crung, approach. A few 
are derived from substantives and adjectives, and are mostly used in a 
collective sense ; as 2£albUt1C}, woodland; ©taWlllifl, stabling ; ^efhing, 
fortress ; Stftebei'Ung, /ow land, — from 2Balb, wood; ^tall, ,s/a6/<? ; fe|r, 
^nw ; and nteber, low. 

Obs. 2. The verbal nouns in Ultg are of a later origin than those 
without any annex (§ 111.), which are perhaps coeval with the verb 
itself. The latter, therefore, are related only to primary verbs, either 
simple, or compounded with particles or prefixes (which latter, origi- 
nally, were likewise separate particles); whilst the former are formed 
chiefly from derivative verbs, which denote an extension or modification 
of the primary idea. Thus, bCV Saufd), the exchange, from the primary 
verb taufcfren ;— bte XaufdHing, the illusion, from the derivative verb 
tatlfcfjeil (see § 111.). There are, accordingly, many verbs of which 
both these verbal nouns are in use, the one without an annex having 
the simpler and intransitive import, and the other with the annex utl$ the 
transitive, or extended signification of the verb ; as, 2>erfu#, attempt ; 
— 2?erfu$uny, temptation, — from the verb cevfuc&en, to attempt, and to 
tempt ;.bcr ©pdtt, split, chink; — bte ©pafttWg, division, disunion; 3ug, 
tug, pull, draft, stroke, feature ; — 3'^UHO,, the act of drawing (as of the 
lottery). It may partly be seen from the last example, that the verbals 
without annexes have often extended their verbal signification, whilst 
those in una, keep more closely to the import of the verb*. See how- 
ever Obs. 3. 

Obs. 3. In German, as in other languages, all kinds of abstract nouns 
are, more or less frequently, used in a concrete sense — that is, to de- 
note things characterized by the action or quality expressed by the 
noun in its primary import. Thus, Cabling denotes both the act of 
lading and that which is laden as the cargo ; 2?eVgierilng, the act of orna- 
menting, and ornament ; ©tfafe, punishment, and also fine ; (§)(Mft,walk f 
and also the place walked upon (passage, gallery, &c); ^§elten(jeit, 
rareness, and also curiosity (i.e. a curious thing). 

* Compare this with § 17, Obs. 



§ 1 12.] DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 277 

Obs. 4. In conclusion, we will add a few remarks regarding names of 
nations, religions, and sects. From the name of the country, that of 
its inhabitants is derived* in the following manner: 1,) If the name of 
the country ends in en not preceded by t, or in rn (as is the case 
with most provinces of Germany), the national name is formed by 
omitting the final tt of the former; as, ©acbfen, Saxony, — etn ©acfyfe, a 
Saxon; Sntiern, Bavaria, — etn JSaier, a Bavarian. Thus, also, $rettj;e, 
Prussian; ©dfrwebe, Swede ; 23of)iTie, Bohemian; UnCjdV, Hungarian, — ■ 
from the names of their respective countries, ^reilfen, ©dtHKben, 2)'ct); 
men, Unqavn. Except %e&l)ptcn, Egypt, and a few names ending in 
gen ; as, 9?cnvegen, Norway; XfjUrtngen, Tkuringia, &c, which in their 
derivatives change the final n into r; etn 9(eppter (also 2Ie<jnptter), an 
Egyptian; tin zftotWtytt, a Norivegian. 2.) But if the name of the 
country ends in ten, the final n is changed into r in the national name; 

as, ©panien, Spain; ©cbleften, Silesia,— ©panter, Spaniard; ©cl)lefier, 

Silesian. Except, etn ^tattancr, an Italian; tin 9Ifiate, an Asiatic; 
^ra&er, Arab; $erfev, Persian, — from %talutU %fkn» &c. 3.) In 
all other cases the name of the inhabitants is formed by annexing et* to 
that of the country; as, Defterretcb, Austria, — etn De|?evvetfl)er, an 
Austrian. Thus also, etn AJOllanber, a Dutchman; tin ©clweijer, a 
Swiss; tin XpVOler, a Tyrolese, — from £)0lfanb, ©CmretJ, Xprcl- The. 
name of the inhabitants of a town is likewise formed by adding er to that 
of the latter; as, etn SJJavifer, a Parisian; tin 2Btener, 2>refbener, &c, 

an inhabitant of Vienna ($3iett), Dresden, &c.f There are many ex- 
ceptions to this third rule; thus we say, ein ^vailjofe, a Frenchman; 
. s )?ufTe, Russian ; ®riedK» Greek; 2>ane, Dane; though the names of 
their respective countries are, ^ranfreicfr, DiUfilanb, ©rtecbenlanb, and 
^iinemarf. (See also § 52. Obs. 3.) The principal exceptions, how- 
ever, are those cases in which the name of the country ends in a or is 
the same as that of the metropolis, in most of which the names of the 
inhabitants are the same as in English with the addition of the ending 

er ; as, ein ^(fvifanev, an African; ©partaner, Spartan; 9?eapclitaner, 

Neapolitan; SJnietianer, Venetian; Sftaltefer, Maltese; ©etUtefer, 
Genoese. We say, however, ^flnnweraner, Hanoverian; 3?omer, 



* Though originally the name of the country is often derived from that 
of the nation inhabiting it, at a later period the latter is generally somewhat 
changed by the former. Thus, Grn<]fnnb, England, originally means the laud 
of the Angles; yet now its inhabitants are called Grnglrinber. In some cases 
both the original name and that derived from the country are in use ; as, 
<e5rf)otte and ©rfjottt-anbsr, Scotchman. 

-f- When the names of towns form a component (for as such they may be 
considered in the following and similar instances), they likewise take er ; as, 
ite 2-eipuner 9fteft«S the Leipsicfuir ; ber Sffitener Gongrejj, the Congress at Vienna. 
(Seealtio §51. Obs. 6.) 

2B 



278 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 113, 

Roman; and 9J?atlanber, Milanese. — The names of nations and tribes 
that are little known, are also the same as in English ; as, cin 5ft0ttyPl, 
Jlafmucf, (Sannibal, &c. 

Nearly the same is the case with the names of religions, sects, and 
societies, i.e., in both languages they are the same, with the exception 
that in German ei* is annexed to those names which in English end in 
an, in, or ic (in the latter case c is changed into f ) ; as, -}JrOtCf?anr, 

(Safoiniff, 9fct&o5i#, %cfuit, ^uffite, But&eraner (Lutheran), 3famtntdc 
net, SWafcomebaner, 3*acc&iner, ©nejrtfer (Gnostic), (Spntfer, &c. Ex- 
cept, (Sat&Olif (which does not take IV); Gs&rifr, Christian (also, Christ); 
Sll'be, Jew; £)tibe, Heathen; and those ending in English in ean or 
ee, which take diX m German; as, (SptCltraer, Epicurean; *JJ{jartfdcr ? 
Pharisee, fyc. 

DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. 

§ 113. Adjectives are formed from verbs, substantives, 
or other adjectives, chiefly by means of the following an- 
nexes. The adjectives derived from verbs, generally, im- 
ply relations of the potential mood (§ 82.), namely, capa- 
city, obligation, or disposition, — see the following, -(jar, 
-lid), -j?aft, and -fam. The annexes of such verbal adjec- 
tives are therefore equivalent to the auxiliary verbs, farm, 
wag, foil, and mug (see Obs. 1.). Several verbal adjectives 
however have the import of the present participle (see the 
following, -13 and -lidf))- 

The annexes added to substantives denote, principally, 
the various relations of the genitive case, such as posses- 
sion or belonging to, origin, &c, and are therefore equi- 
valent to the preposition V0)1, of or from; of which import 
almost all the following annexes afford examples. 

Adjectives derived from other adjectives mostly denote 
diminution in degree (see the annex lid))- Some imply a 
disposition ; as, \val)V, true,— \vai)\i) aft, veracious. 

Obs. 1. In adjectives derived from verbs, or verbal nouns, the primi- 
tive is frequently used in a passive sense; thus, " questionable" de- 
notes what may be questioned; " punishable", what may be punished ; 
" unbearable", what cannot be borne ; and as the German and English 
do not always agree in this respect, attention must be paid to usage. 
Thus, " suspicious", is used both actively (given to suspect), and pas- 



§ 113.] DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. 279 

sively {suspected). In the former sense it must be rendered by at'g; 
robfonifcfo, in the latter by O-Crfracfctty. " Notable", actively, is aufmcrf ? 
)am, am\i§— passively, mextwWty. On the contrary, pevacfrtltcj) de- 
notes both contemptuous and contemptible; fcewegltdj, moving and 
movable, <§icbt, sight, is used actively in uovftcbtig, cautious, and passively 
in bur rib fid) tig, transparent. Similar to this is the practice, common 
in all languages, of applying to an act a quality which can belong only 
to the agent ; as, " a daring robbery", " a prudent action". 

The following are the principal annexes by which ad- 
jectives are formed : — 

1- — bciX* answers in most cases to the English ending able, or ible, de- 
noting capacity ; and forms adjectives chiefly from verbs; as, bxcnnbdY, 
combustible ; fefjlbar, fallible ; frrettbar, capable of bearing arms ; fjbrfcar, 
audible ; fytWbdX, curable ; fcjjtffr/ar, navigable, — from the verbs fcrenttCtt, 
fefjlefl, &c. Some are derived from substantives; in which derivatives 
tat* denotes bearing, or productive of; as, frild)tbar, fruitful, fertile; 
3tll$6ar, tributary ; ttninberbat*, wonderful, — from the nouns $rucfrt, 
fruit, &c. 

2. — en (Engl. e#) denotes made of; and forms adjectives from sub- 
stantives only; as, fetben, silken; WOtfeit, woollen; gOf&cn, golden; 
tupfexn (for fupferen), of copper. Some take em instead of Oil; as, 
fro'ljern, wooden; b\Z\tXX\, leaden, &c. 

3.— ^aft (related to fjaben,and to fraften, *osfr'c£)forms adjectives both 
from nouns and verbs; and denotes, 1.) Possession; as, fefyltxfydf tfaidty ; 
fieg&aft, victorious; mangetyaft, defective; gweifel^jaft, doubtful; ge? 
Wltfen&aft, conscientious— from %fyUx, fault, &c. 2.) Likeness; as, 
fa&el&aft, fabulous; metlter^aft, masterly; riCfenfiaft, gigantic. 3.) 
Disposition; chiefly from verbs ; as, plailber&aft, talkative; ^a^aft, timo- 
rous ; flattevfjaft, volatile, fickle, —from the verbs plailbew, &c. 

4. — idfrt forms adjectives from concrete substantives only ; and im- 
plies a participation in the nature of its primitive; as, t#6viti)t, foolish ; 
(umpidjt, shabby, beggarly,— from X&Or, /oo/; Ctimpen, rag. Most of 
these adjectives, however, denote characteristics of substance; as, 
f'cxn'ubt, granulous ; tf)0ntd)t, clayey ; faljic^t, saltish. 

Obs. 2. This annex is often used indiscriminately with the following, 
tg; as, fjOljig. °r ^O^icbt, woody. According to Adelung and other 
grammarians, however, this usage is objectionable ; and they confine 
kbt to the import of similarity, whilst ig implies the actual possession 
of what is expressed by the primitive. Accordingly, fjprmr.Jjt means 

* This ending is in most adjectives considered as the root of the obsolete 
fenren, to bear, and, figuratively, to admit; and in some cases to be the particle 
bnx, bare, naked, figuratively, open or exposed to. 

2 B 2 



280 FORMATION OF WORDS, [§II3v 

horny, hornlike ; but fjdnifCU horned ; as, $wei&0i'ltij5, two-horned. Thus 
also we should say, ^clgtC^tC $flan^tt, stringy plants ; but eine ftO^tge 
©C^CJlb, a woody country. 

5. — 1$ (Engl, y, x\nglo-Saxon ig) is related to et#eil, own; and hence 
denotes possessed of (a thing, or habit). It forms adjectives from nouns 
and verbs; as, rtUlt&tC}, courageous; floiffty, industrious, — from the 
nouns 3J?ut(j and $leij? : jfdf?tg, goring, butting; gefrevtCj, belonging,— 
from the verbs frofen and gefroren. It may be seen from the last ex- 
amples that the verbal adjectives in ig have the import of a participle 
present. — When annexed to concrete nouns, rg implies that the primi- 
tive forms a component part of another object (an import peculiar to 
this annex); as, fa ftify, juicy ; Walbiy, woody ; gCbtvgig, mountainous, — 
from (Baft, juice ; $Balb, wood, fyc. (See also Obs. 2.) This annex is 
exclusively used, like ed in English, when adjectives are formed from 
two words otherwise not compounded; as, X>\zxfW$\a,,. four-footed ; i\r\- 
atjgig, one-eyed; boppe^UttCjiC}, double-tongued ; einfetttg, one-sided, par- 
tial ; (anybetntg, long-legged. Particles, too, are turned by this ending 
into adjectives ; as, tiQXify, former, from VOX, before. — See also § 97. 

6. — i|*$ (Engl, ish) forms adjectives from primitives of different de- 
scriptions. 1.) From abstract nouns dewotrng faulty dispositions, and 
from names of living beings implying some similar idea; as, tiicftfcb, 
malicious; ttetbtfcfr, envious; ba'lierifcf?, boorish; btcblfcb, thievish; 
ttefrtfd), brutish. There are even some instances in which adjectives 
both in tf$ and H# are formed from the same primitives; the former 
denoting a bad, the latter a good quality; as, finbifcf?, childish, — f\\\b" 
lt$, filial, also simple as a child; WCtbtfef), effeminate, — V&Z\hX\&) , femi- 
nine ; fremfcfy,- imperious, arrogant, — frerrltcf), excellent. However, 
many adjectives derived from nouns in CX, and all from compounds 
with 3J?ann, imply no obloquy; as, mafylex'lfd), picturesque; vebltCVtfcfr., 
rhetorical; fatlfmannifcf), mercantile; bergmanntfd}, miner-like, — from 
$Jtal)ltV, painter, $c. 2.) From primitives denoting locality, especially 
from geographical names; as, ail5 (an b'lfd), foreign; irbtfrJfc?, earthly; 
£immlifd[j, heavenly, &c, — from tyllvlawb, foreign countries; (SrbC,. 

earth, &c. .9?&einif#e 2Beine, Rhenish wines; bie ^prenaif#en ©ebtrge, 

the Pyrenean mountains ; &blnif($e£ 2Pafier, Cologne water, — from bev 
0jfjettt, the Rhine; bie $ttvenaen, the Pyrenees; (Sb'ln, Cologne. 3.) 
From proper names of persons: bie .^antifcfye $()iiCfopfrte> the Kantian 
philosophy. 4.) From names of nations, religions, sects, and other so- 
cieties, in which derivations the endings e, er, iCr, and iter (or tfe) of 
the primitive (see §112. Obs. 4.) are mostly omitted; as, gotfnfd), 
Gothic; frail jbfl fd), French ; XCm'lfti), Roman ; fpantfdb, Spanish; Utt= 
QCirifcb, Hungarian, — from ©Otlje, Goth ; ^ranjCfe, Frenchman, he. : 
pxCXeftantiid), protesta7it ; tatfyCllfd), catholic; niet&Ob'tfrtfcb, methodise 
ical ; \tf\\\\\ffy, Jesuitical; Cnnif$, cynic; jaCOtttufdb, Jacobinical,— from 



§ 113.] DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. 281 

bet $retei?anf, jtatfjottf, &c. Except fjeibmfdi, heathen, and c&rifftidb, 

Christian, — from the substantives #etbe and (J&rijT. Lastly, this annex 
is used with most adjectives derived from foreign languages, which, 
for the most part, end in English in ic or ical; as, matbemattfcfy, ma- 
thematical ; f m i )d), comic ; tr a g i fdb, tragic ; pvacti f#, practical ; milU 
tariff), military. 

7. — ltd) (Engl, /j/, Anglo-Saxon /ic) forms adjectives from substan- 
tives, from other adjectives, and from verbs. Those derived from sub- 
stantives answer frequently to English adjectives in ly, or like, or ful 
implying conformity, or belonging to; as, fiirfrlicb, princely ; fotperlick 
bodily; mittterUcfr , winter-like ; ^f^Ud), lawful; jllgenblicfr, youthful; 
t}'du$l\(i), domestic, — from the nouns, tfiirjl, prince, &c. Some are ren- 
dered in English by a prepositional phrase; as, munMtcfy, by word of 
mouth; 6u$6tdb[t#, to the letter, literal. In most adjectives derived 
from abstract nouns li(i) denotes possessed or full of, often with the ac- 
cessory idea of causation ; as, aBfdKUiicIJ, abominable; gefdjjrltcfo, dan- 
gerous; rufjmltcfr, glorious; V erbietlflltcfr, meritorious; ylucfltcb, lucky, 
fortunate. Annexed to adjectives it denotes diminution; as, rb't&ltcfr, 
reddish ; fu^Itcb, sweetish ; dltlicfr, elderly, — from rotf), red, &c. In some 
of them it has the accessory idea of disposition ; as, f(eirUtd), trivial, 
mean; Y ?il\li&), cleanly. In verbal adjectives li# answers, like 6ar, to the 
English ending able or ible ; denoting capacity, fitness, or obligation ,• as, 
bC^veiflld), conceivable ; erbltch, inheritable ; XfyuwYlfy, feasible ; VZXarW- 
itJOrtlict), answerable; VZYl<t\fy\\$), pardonable. Other verbals in ltd) have 
the import of the participle present, and often with the accessory idea 
of disposition ; as, i>er6tnbli#, obliging; unaufftorltdb, i?icessant; eryb'g-- 

lt$, charming, delightful; tGUyttcfy, proper, convenient. — Some others 
partake more of the nature of a participle pastj as, vOtftcH'lcb, pre- 
tended ; CrfOrberftcft, requisite, necessary ; avgCVHcJ?, both vexatious and 
vexed. — We may notice also that in some adjectives nt, or t, and in a 
few CY, is inserted between the root and the annex; as, ifbd^entlicfr, 
weekly; offentlt#, public ; kfcxtid), legible,—- from 2Be#e, OJf^H, and 

lefen. 

Obs. 3. With adjectives derived from primitives ending in I, the an- 
nex iy is often used instead of ltct>. Thus, we find rtbelty, of nobility, and 
a beKid^ (analogous to biivyerltcb, civic); lintCtbelig, irreprehensible, for 
ttntdbelUcft (analogous, to fdblicft, laudable). Adjectives in fi$ change in 
composition this ending into ty (see -tg, p. 280); as, nu$lt$, useful; $(-. 
metnnU^tg, of general use ; \'di)XUdl), yearly ; tdyitd)*, daily; and yet we 
say, b<X$ breitdyige %kbCX, the intermittent (literally every third days) 



* This annex was formerly often used in the sense of every ; which import 
it has now both in English and German in nouns referring to time, as in 

2 B 3 



2S2 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 113. 

fever ; bit fiittfjjigja&rige $eier, the jubilee. Generally, however, when 
ty and \\d) are annexed to the same primitives, the former implies an 
intrinsic quality, the latter an extrinsic circumstance; as, jetti^, ripe, 
— jdtlid), early .betimes; uenranbig, intelligent,— yerflanblicb, intelligi- 
ble; frnnt$, having sense (chiefly used in compounds; as, UJlfinniy, 
nonsensical, mad), — finnlic^, by means of the senses ; yiaubty\ believing, 
faithful (in religion), — £(aufcli$, credible. 

8. — fam (Engl, some) denotes a disposition, or readiness ; and forms 
adjectives chiefly from verbs ; as, folyfattl, obsequious, obedient; n}dch> 
fam, watchful; wirffdrtl, efficacious; avfrettfam, industrious; entfjalt* 
fcim, abstemious; gClliigfam, content, easy, — from the verbs felgfll, 
if stcfre n, &c. Some are derived from nouns; as, tttii&faui, laborious, 
troublesome ; bebacfrtfam, cautious ; Iailyfam, slow. — The greater part 
of the adjectives in fam, as may partly be seen from these examples, 
denote qualities betraying a careful, but moderate and forbearing mind. 
Hence ratfrftftti, advisable, mostly implies precaution — for instance, in 
anticipating an inconvenience; — vdtljlicb, advisable for meeting a pre- 
sent one; em fparfame? 93?afjl, a frugal meal; Ctn fpd'lltelKS SRa&l, « 
scanty meal. 

Obs. 4. It will easily be perceived that to understand the exact mean- 
ing of any derivative, its immediate primitive must be kept in view. 
Thus, from the above derivative adjectives, with the exception of those 
in en, \fr,\, and \fci), abstract substantives may be formed by annexing 
fett (§ 112.), which differ from kindred abstracts formed immediately 
from the root. For instance, from empfmben, to feel, come the three 
adjectives empfinbfcar, able to feel, also able to be felt ; empfrnbltcb', 
easily affected, sensitive, touchy; and empfmbfam, sentimental; and 
from these are again formed the substantives @mpfmbf:arfeit, ca- 
pacity of feeling; Gmpfmblicbfett, quick susceptibility of feeling ; ($my>'< 
finbfamfeit, sentimentality; all differing from (5m pfw&U 11 g, /<?*/*«#, de- 
rived immediately from the verb empftnbeil. So also from abstract 
nouns in fdjaft are frequently derived adjectives in lici), which must 
not be confounded with those derived from the same primitive as the 
noun in fcf? a ft. Thus, from gefelletl, to associate, are derived, gefelli£, 
sociable, and ©efellfc&afr, society; and from the latter again, gefeUfcftaff: 

licfr, social; as, ber flefeflfc&aftlicbe (not gefellige) $ertrag, the social 

compact. $teimblid), and tf reunbltcb*feit, imply hindness, or apleasant- 
ness to our senses; but freimbfcbaftlicb" implies in accordance with friend- 
ship. Thus we may say, eilt fvetmbltcfK?— but not freunbfcfcaftliciie* 
— ^immet, a pleasant room. 

the above examples ; whilst the corresponding nouns in tg imply age or dura- 
tion ; as, ein jafjrigeS &n(6, a calf of one year old; eine ^rertdgige <&d)iad)t, a 
battle of three days. 



§ 114.] PREFIXES. 283 

VERBAL ANNEXES. 

§ 114. Of these we have to notice only the endings cl 
and iq, which are inserted before the verbal inflections 
(§ 73.'). 

1. — el denotes a diminution in degree; also weakness and affecta- 
tion. Most verbs with el are formed either from nouns (both substant. 
and adject.), or from other verbs; as, wigeln, to say smart things; 
fdwanjeln, to wag the tail, — from 2Big, wit, &c; — franfein, to be 
sickly; fr'ommeln, to affect piety ; alteln, to become oldish, — from the 
adjectives, franf, sick; fromm, pious, &c. ; — empft'nbeftt, to be senti- 
mental; ItfflKfn, to smile, — from empfillben, to feel; Icldfc)Cn, to laugh. 

2. — iy. This annex has no influence on the signification of the verb, 
but seems to serve merely as a connective of the primitive and the 
letters of inflection, as it does when inserted before ffit (see p. 275). 
Thus from ©tetn, stone ; ^tJtrl, pain ; rein, clean, come the verbs 
IreiniyCll, to -stone; petm^en, to torment; reintgen, to clean. Hence 
there are some instances in which two forms, with and without ig, are 
in use without any difference of import; as, etlbiyCU and eitbeit, to 

finish; vereiniyen and oereinen, to unite. 

Obs. Several verbs are formed by the annex er,- but the primi- 
tives of these verbs have become obsolete, with the exception, of a 
few; such as, fofgern, to infer; raudtKW, to perfume, to smoke-dry ; 
alteril, to become old, &c, — from fOiy^n, to follow ; raucDcn, to smoke ; 
alt, old. — Verbs adopted from foreign languages take the annex ir (or 
ier— §23.); as, pfnlofop&iren, to philosophize; maX)d)\VCn, to march ; 
3rattlliven, to congratulate. 

PREFIXES. 

§ 115. The prefixes, or unaccented particles prefixed to 
other words, are six*, viz. 6c, ent, cr, X>er, $e, and ^cr. 
With the exception of #e (which see), they are used only 
in the formation of verbs ; and therefore nouns with pre- 
fixes are generally derived from verbs. Thus, SJetfaufer, 
seller, is derived by the annex ev from tJCrfaufcit» to sell, 
and not by the prefix ViX from ^dufct, buyer. Regarding 
their import, we observe as follows: — 



* The prefix emp, mentioned in § 74, occurs only in these three verbs, emy* 
frtngen, to receive ; empfefylen, to recommend ; and emprmfcen, to feel. 



284? FORMATION OF WORDS. [§115, 

1. be — * (Engl, be) implies, 1.) Upon, over, on all sides (see also Obs. 
1.), just like be in English ; as, beftVCUen, to bestrew (the ground with 
flowers; which is equivalent to *' strew flo .vers upon, or all over, the 
ground") ; bcfefcen, to beset; belabetl, to load (a ship); bcfiien, to sow (a 
field); befcangeh, to hang (a wall with pictures); bettucht'n, to watch 
(over) ; bcfcbcliun, to shine upon; bt'btenen, to wait upon, — from ffretieil, 
to strew ; fVf?Cn, to set; (abCll, to load (goods); fiU'n, to soiv (corn) ; 
fratl^en, to hang (a picture) ; watbCn, to be awake; fd?Ctnett, to shine; 
bienen, to serve. As a figurative use of "all over", we may consider 
the signification of 2.) Intenseness or solicitude, implying either an im- 
mediate purpose, or opposition from the object of the action. Thus, 
le\)vet\ denotes to teach,— be\e\)ter\, to set (one) right; veberi, to speak, 

— beveben, to persuade; frayen, to ask, — befva^n, to consult ; jwingen, 

to force, — be^rttlyCn, to conquer. Thus, also, be\UXd)tet], to appre- 
hend, — from furc^ten, to fear ; bebmfcn, to consider (with the view of 
taking a resolution). 3.) To impart, to bestow ; as, bekbcit, to animate, 
to bring to life ; bencnneil, to name, to give a name, — from leben, to 
live, and nennen, to call. Most verbs of this import, however, are de- 
rived from nouns; as, bt?fcittcn, to stiing ; bcauftvaCjCn, to commission ; 
befvetcn, to deliver, — from ©aitC, string; ^luftrflQ, commissipn ; frd, 
free. Some of them take, moreover, the annex j$j as, befncbtgen, to 
' appease ; befcjrtgen, to fortify, — from $VtCbe, peace ; \e)X, firm. 

Obs. 1. Most verbs with be imply, as may be seen from the preceding 
examples, that the action is directed to an object with which the pri- 
mitive verb has no immediate connexion, being either intransitive, or 
directed to another object — see bew&cfyen and be\tveuet\ in the above 
examples. Hence, not only are verbs with be, for the most part, of 
transitive import, but generally imply, moreover, animadversion, or an 
intentional action. Thus, triigen, to deceive ; fu&Ien, to feel ; nU^en, 
to be of use ; fefren, to see ; may all be conceived as involuntary actions 
(we say, hex ©Cfreitt trUyt, appearance deceives; id) fitfjle e'lnetl ^UQ,-- 
rMtlb, I feel a draught of wind); but, betrUyCtl, to cheat ; bcfUfjleft, to 
/<?c/(with one's hand); bcnU$cn, to profit by, imply intention or purpose. 

2. ent— f (Engl, un) implies generally, a separation, or disengaging. 



* It is the same partide as the preposition 6et, by, which formerly had a 
more extensive import than now; but even its present significations (§ 105) 
are often traceable in the prefix. Thus, fid) befinnen, to recollect, to bethink, 
may be resolved into, bet fid) finnen, to think to oneself. In befud)en, to visit, 
be has like bet the import of home. However, those verbs to which both be 
and bei are prefixed have always a different import with each particle. Thus., 
befommen denotes to receive, literally to come by — beifomnten, to get 'at (a 
thing); benjDfjnen, to inhabit— bein>Df;tien, to assist at; bejref)en, to consist— beu 
frerjen, to assht, to stand by. 

f The original form in Old German is ant (Gr. a. vrl), and in Anglo- 



§ 115.] PREFIXES. 285 

Its particular significations are, 1.) A privation or dispossession of what 
the primitive expresses, similar to theEnglish un or dis: etUnUlV^eln, to 
unroot; ent&eilt^eil, to desecrate ; ente&rett, to dishonour ; (\Ufyai\pttn, 
to behead ; entfcbttlbiyen, to excuse ; futbinbett, to unbind. 2.) Away, 
removal from out of the reach or power of an*object: entlflUfcn, to- 
run away from; entffiefjen, to escape by flight (fltehen, to flee, does not 

imply escape); entfii&ren, % abduct; entlaifen, to dismiss ; entjieheMo 

withdraw. 3.) A motion from within an object, an origin: entfprilU 
gen, to spring forth, to originate ; Cntf?C|)CI1> to take rise; ftdt) ent§Unb*?n> 
to ignite. 

3. et — * (Engl, a) denotes, 1.) Coming within the reach of our percep- 
tion, and hence also emerging into existence, and producing : CtfcbCtllCH, 
to make its appearance, to be seen; evfctyallCtt, or eVtOUtn, to resound, 
to be heard ; erfrUcfetl, to catch sight of, to descry ; erfcftaffetl, to create; 
evfi'nben, to invent; CVbenfen, to excogitate ; ewtcfjten, to erect, to esta- 
blish; ergCUgen, to produce. 2.) Attainment or acquisition of an object by 
means of the action denoted by the simple verb: erreicfrCN, to reach (up 
to an object); evetlett, to overtake by speed; erhafdjen, to catch; iX- 

fec&ten, to get or gain by fighting; fein 25rob ettanjen, erbetteln, to get 

one's bread by dancing, begging. 3.) Continuation of the action denoted 
by the primitive, till the accomplishment of its aim: etlewen, to learn 
(anything) entirely ; erfrayCn, to find out by (repeated) inquiry; (\'s 
forfcfren, to explore; Cflebetl, to live to see (an event). Thus, also, 

einen 25erg erftetflen, to ascend (to the top of) a hill; but, fceffeiaen 

denotes simply to mount (a horse, or a hill). 4.) A coming or bringing 



Saxon and, which forms this particle always preserved before nouns ; and 
the former is still found in 9Inttt)ort, answer ( Anglo- S. andwyrda) ; and Slnta 
\'\fy,face (Anglo-S. andwlita). As a verbal prefix the particle was changed 
in Anglo-S. into on, which in English has been changed again into un, thus 
coinciding in form with the simple negative un (Anglo-Saxon un) prefixed 
to adjectives. It will therefore be remembered that the former answers to 
the German ent (sometimes to nfc) ; the latter is also in German un. Thus, 
unsealed, as the past participle of to unseal, is entftegeft; but when an adjective 
(equivalent to not sealed), it is ungefiegeft in German. The same applies to 
such words as unmasked, unpeopled, unarmed, fyc. <$-c, for which there are 
always in German different forms for the privative, and the simply negative, 
significations. 

* In Old German it had the different forms of ur, nr, it, and er, of which 
in* still exists as a nominal prefix; as, \\x<\mli, fountain-head ; Urfpmng, origin, 
&c. In Anglo-Saxon the forms of this prefix are or and a; the former being 
prefixed to nouns, the latter to verbs. Originally this particle rvas a preposi- 
tion, denoting out; and just as out is, with regard to the spectator, used in 
two opposite directions, namely, towards him (as in " to break out", " to 
come out"), and away from him, or from the present moment, to the oppo- 
site end (as in " to look out", " to hold out") ; so the prefix denotes both 
emergency, and continuation to the end — see the three first significations. — 
This particle is justly supposed to be related to the Latin oriri. 



286 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 115. 

into the state or feeling expressed by the primitive : WW &d)t\\, to awake ; 
erfdjredfen, to be frightened, to frighten ; evjUrneil, to make angry ; ft: 
traunen, to be astonished, to astonish. Most of the verbs of this import 
are derived from adjectives ; as, Ctftanfen, to fall ill; erfatten, tobecome 

cold; erblmben, to become blind; evmatten, to grow weak; cvrbt&en, to 

blush ; evweic&etl, to soften; from the adjectives franf, fait, &c. 5.) A 
restoration, or a recalling of a former impression, like the English re ; 

as, crqutifcn, or erfrifcpen, to refresh; cvneuen, to renovate ; erneuevn, 

to renew; Crinnem, to remind ; evfegetl, tore-place; ev\a\T?t\, to remit ; 
Crldfen, to release; fid) CV&Ofen, to recover ; ft'db Crmannen, to recover 
one's courage ; Crgar^en, to complete, to restore. 

4. DC? — (Engl, for) is related to the particles fort, away ; ftiv,for; 
and per, before. It denotes, ] .) Away ; a gradual ceasing, or consum- 
ing; as, pevtreifcei!, to drive away; perfdnPtnben, to disappear; vtX- 
fMlfen or wrfltnflen, to die away (of sound); petTaucben, to evaporate, 

to reek out; perfaulen, to rot; perftrennen, to consume by fire (fcrennen 

means, to be on fire, or to burn) ; PCravbftten, to work up (materials, e. g. 
leather, &c). 2.) Loss, deprivation : perfptekn, to lose at, or by, gaming ; 
bit fyit Derfcfofafen, DCrtraumen, to lose one's time by sleeping, dream- 
ing; fein SJermb'gen perbauen, pervetfen, to spend one's fortune in 

building, travelling; Uergeffen, to forget ; perbtetetl, to forbid ; vtXs 
fcfrlflbren, to forswear. 3.) Concealment, or debarring from access: PCf* 

jrecfen or perbergen, /o conceal; perfcfcliefen, fo «A«2 m^; perrtcyeln, 

to bar ; pevmaueM, 2o wa// wp; PerfdttPeiyetl, to conceal (a secret). 
Of this class are further such verbs as peryOlben, to gild ; perpi#en, to 
pitch over, &c. 4.) Spoili?ig, or injuring, wrong: X>tX\\t^t\\,tospoil%n 
education ; perbrffrett, to distort ; PCrfUbfett, to lead astray, to seduce; 
PerfpOttetl, to deride; PCVWiinfc&en, to accurse ; Perbrutfen, to misprint; 
ficl? Pevfprecfren, PervecfentTl, to make a mistake in speaking, reckoning. 
5.) A change, in space or time, or of the possessor ; as, pevpflangcn, to 
transplant; pet'fcpiffCn, to ship (goods to another place); perfdbteben,*o 
postpone ; petition, to transfer (to another place or time); petfpaven, 
to reserve (for another time) ; PtTtttdCfren, to bequeath {to make over) ; 
PfVttltet&Cn, to let. 6.) Transmutation, or change of condition ; as, pef* 

tpanbeln, to metamorphose; perfofjien, to burn to coal ; perfTeinern, to 

petrify ; pevbon'en, to dry or wither; Pet'bi#tCn, to condense. 2?er 
has this import also in all verbs derived from adjectives in the com- 
parative degree; as, PCVgrb^ern, to enlarge ; perfcbbneni, to embellish ; 
permebren, to increase. A change of state seems implied also in verbs 
denoting an intermixing or uniting with other objects ; as, permtfdKn, 
to intermix ; PerfTeri)tCn, to interlace ; perfammdn, to assemble; frcfr 

perfdjipbren, to conspire; pereinicjen, to unite; perboppeln, to double. 

7.) For; as, PCranttPOrten, to answer for ; pevfC&nen, to reward for ; 
Perfedjten, to fight for, to defend; perbanfett, to thank for. This prefix 



§ 115.] PREFIXES. 287 

is often used in one and the same verb in several of its significations. 
Thus, DCrfcfrreifren denotes, to consume or use (writing materials); to 
ivrite wrong (a word); to make over, to assign; to write for (from an- 
other place) ; to prescribe (medicine) ; to engage or pledge in writing. 
The last three significations belong to the 7th import, "for" being im- 
plied in each of them*. 

06s. 2. Comparing the fourth signification of er with the sixth of 
pet, it will be seen that both often denote a transition into another 
state: and, indeed, there are some cases in which both particles are 
used indiscriminately ; as, evfofcfKn, or tJCrfo'fdjen, to extinguish, to go 
out; erftumtnen, or DCrjtummen, to be struck dumb. Yet, more gene- 
ral!}', the change denoted by DCV has reference to the elementary part? 
of a subject, that denoted by er, to its life and organization ; the former 
is mostly produced gradually by time, the latter by some particular 
cause. Thus we say, fte erbla^te, she turned pale (from some emotion) ; 
but, btC tf arbeil cevblaffen, the colours fade. Hence, too, verbs expres- 
sive of death caused by a sudden action, take the prefix er; whilst verbs 
implying a gradual waste, take l>er; as, erfci)(tfyCn, to slay ; erfrecfc)en, 
erf#te§en, to stab, to shoot dead; rjerfilingevn, to die with hunger ; fict? 
DetHuten, to bleed to exhaustion ; DerfcfymaftHen, to linger away. 

5. ge— t forms both verbs and nouns from other words. Its general 
import in verbs, is that of continuance, condensation, or strengthening j 
as, yebenfen, to remember ; gefrieren, to freeze up, to congeal ; gefrtetCU, 
to command; gefjOrcfyen, to obey, — from fcetlfen, to think; frieren, to 
freeze ; bieten, to bid; and (jcrdben, to hearken. In a few cases, the de- 
rivative verb hardly differs in import from its primitive; as, mien and 

gereuen, to repent; piemen and gestemen, to behove; fchtuiten and 
<}efd(nr ell en, to swell. 

* The same remark applies to the other prefixes, as well as to separable 
particles (§ 117.) which have more than one signification, and which are fre- 
quently used in the same word in several of their respective meanings. 

f The form of this prefix, which is used also as an augment of past parti- 
ciples (§ 72.), is in Gothic ga, in the oldest German extant ga and fa, in later 
writers ge, in Anglo-Saxon likewise ge (see Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, 
vol. ii.).— The original form (ga), it would seem, has been preserved in a 
few of the Teutonic words existing in French, viz., in gaspiler (Germ. uer>- 
fpitfen ; Engl, spill) ; galopper (Low Germ, and Dutch lnpen—to run,— Engl. 
to leap); and perhaps in gabelle (Anglo-Saxon gavel, and in some parts of 
Germany ©ajfel), which is not unlikely to be the same word as the German 
Oiefalie, taxes ; and formerly— at least in some provinces— also inheritance (see 
Ojaffel and ©efdlle in Adelung). In modern English there are a few traces 
left of this prefix; namely, enough (Anglo-Saxon genoh, Germ, genua,) ; the 
past participles yet found in Johnson, yclad, ycleperl, ydrad, and ypigfit; and 
very likely also in handiwork, (i.e. hand-iwork, A.-S. hand-geweorce),hand-icraft 
(A.-S. gecr&ft) ; and if the above supposition be correct, also in gavel and 
gavelkind. Grimm supposes this prefix to be related to the Latin cum. 



288 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 115. 

The substantives formed by this prefix are derived from other sub- 
stantives, as well as from verbs ; the former derivatives have a collective 
import; as, ©ebit'g*, ridge of mountains ; OeHifci?, thicket; ©ejTUijef, 
poultry, — from JSery, mountain; 2)ttftb, bush; $lUgel, iving. But 
those derived from verbs have for the most part a frequentative import, 
often with the accessory idea of annoyance; as, bd5 ©efreuf, ©efcftitfag, 
©frnunild, (ScitfimniCl 4 , the continual howling, chattering, murmuring, 
whimpering, — from the verbs heuletl, fdjttUl&en, &c. These verbal 
nouns sometimes affix C; as, ba5 ©eldllfe 1Mb C$efcbtife, the running and 
sending backivards and forwards — (©efdlttif, without the final e, denotes 
fate). It must, however, be observed, that a great many of such de- 
rivatives denote simple actions, capacities, or even things; as, ©cfret, 
prayer; ($efU#, request; (&£\~Ut)l,feeli?ig; ©efcfrenf, present, gift. 

Adjectives, too, are formed sometimes by this prefix, either in con- 
junction with an annex (§ US.), or without one ; as, yelatlft'g, current, 
fluent ; Ciehafpg, odious,— from latlfcn, to run; ^affeit, to hate; QCYClUm 
or gevaumty, spacious; %CXC($)t, just ; gefKim, secret, — from £K.aum, 
space; .OtCdbt, right; ty'\XX\,'home. 

6. get — f implies a dissolution or breaking up into parts ; as, get*: 
Eu'Cdfrett, to break to pieces ; gerfptltten, to split asunder; gerttagen, to 
gnaw into bits ; JCVfcfrmelgCtt, to solve by melting; gerfmuen, to scatter, 
to disperse. 

Obs. 3. It will be observed from the preceding explanations of the 
prefixes, that, generally, be, as denoting imparting, is opposed to CJIt, 
denoting depriving; Cl*, as denoting acquisition and accomplishing, is 
opposed to per, implying loss an d failure; and ge, importing condensation 
and collecting, is opposed to \i\, implying decomposition and dispersion. 

Thus, cefletben, to clothe ; entfleiben, to unclothe;— evfyielen, to gain 

by playing; PCrfptelCH, to lose in play ; — evfemten, to recognise; VZX-- 
femteil, to mistake; — geritmCtt, to coagulate; JCVrinnCtt, to melt, to 
flow asunder. From fegett, to set, are formed, [-cfc^Ctl, to beset, to 
garrison; CtttfCgen, to depose, relieve (a fortress); CrfC^Clt, to make 
amends, to restore; t>erfC£Cn, to misplace, to remove; gevfe^eil, to de- 
compose , to solve . Thus, also, fcebetf en, to cover; uet'becfen, to conceal 
by covering; etUbecfeil, to discover %; — betttacfyfeil, to grow over, \to 

* In the derivation the change of the primitive e into i or ie may be con- 
sidered as analogous to that of a, o, U, into d, b, ti, — i.e. as a mere vowel in- 
flection. Thus also, ©eficfccr, plumage; ©eftim, constellation; ptd)t"l, to pilch ; 
irbiftf), earthly, — from giber, feather ; ©tern, star; <$(<£), pitch; Cf roc, earth. 
The same change takes place in the irregular conjugalion. (See § 83.) 

f Anglo-Saxon L>, Gothic des, Latin dis. 

% In this instance tut implies the counterpart of uer, and not that of be; 
as, indeed, it does in many other cases where vet denotes concealment ; as, , 
ver\d)tttixn, to veil ; entfdjleiem, to unveil. 



§116.] COMPOUND NOUNS. 289 

overgrow; CntWflCfrjVn, to outgrow, (literally, to grow away from) ; t\i 
Wacbfetl, to grow up,to reach the full size ; DerWacbfetl, to grow deformed, 
also to groiv together. In forming verbs from other parts of speech, 
the idea to be conveyed by each verb mostly decides the choice of the 
prefix, ifanyisused; as, fcejafrett, to affirm ; remeinen, to deny; cer* 
UiclJteil, to annihilate ; entfernett, to remove; erubrigen, to save (money) ; 
$tt$lkbetn, to dismember, — from jfl, yes; tlCin, no; ttt#t, not; fern, 
far; UbYlQ, remaining; ©lieber, limbs. — Of several verbs with pre- 
fixes there are no primitives in use; as, fre^tntien, to begin ; getr-innett, 
to win; DCriieretl, to lose; there being no such primitives as giniien, 
nnnnen, &c. 



COMPOSITION. 

§ 116. Compound numerals and adverbs having been 
already noticed in their respective places, we have here to 
treat chiefly of compound nouns and verbs, — that is, of 
compounds in which a noun or a verb forms the last 
component part; since it is this which decides to what 
part of speech a compounded word belongs*. 

COMPOUND NOUNS. 

Nouns (both substantive and adjective) are compounded 
with other nouns, with verbs, or with particles. 

Examples. 

25a Utn WOlle (literally, tree-wool), cotton ; ©eeyVUtt, sea-green; fofi> 
fc^warj, coal-black; ®X0$VClteV, grandfather; toUfUhn, foolhardy; 
3?ettf#Ule, riding-school; W\$\}t%\tx\§, desirous of knowledge ; 2Bof)fs 
XfyiW, benefactor; 9?atf)rntttag, afternoon; UMtXixbifd), subterraneous. 

Either of the components may itself be a compound; as, ^etljahrSs 
Oefcfrettf, a new-year's gift; %aumwt>l\et\'.&pmnma{d)it\et\, cotton- 
spinning-machines; <$en?vab$lxk%$-3ablm?iftex (or as some would 
write, (Seneralfrte^ja^meijtert), war-paymaster-general. 



* The exceptions are found only in those cases where a whole phrase 
forms a compound; as, bet 9ttnmtet{7ttt, the glutton; &er £nugentd)ti3, the good- 
for-nothing fellow ; bet ©nrnuS, the coup de grace ; ^eutjutnge, nowadays. 

f This joining of all the parts of a compound word in German without 
hyphens is contrary to the rules of Grammarians ; and it is this, rather than 
their great complexity (which* in English exists almost to an equal degree), 

2c 



290 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 116. 

Obs. 1. The former part of a compound word usually has the form of 
its grammatical root, as in the examples just adduced ; but there are 
many substantives, of all genders, that in composition take the inflec- 
tion of the genitive (en or .£*), whilst others assume that of the 
plural (er or fit); regarding which we observe as follows:— 1.) Nouns 
of the third declension ($47), and most feminine substantives in e, take 
en or tt ; as, $elbentbat, heroic action ; ©eibenttWrm, silkworm.' — Nouns 
in e, often drop this vowel, if they do not add n; as, £trcbf)0f (from 
£ircl;e), churchyard; freubpcll, or fveubencoU (from $reube), joyful. 
2.) All derivative nouns ending in 3 or t (most of which are of the fe- 
minine gender— see § 112), all feminines ending in ten or tat, and infi- 
nitives, take $ in composition; as, $vijf)ltny£&(ume, spring flower ; @C- 
funbfcett^regel, rule of health; S^CliytOn^freKKtt, religious liberty ; \\t\U 

revfittitwfreunb, a college friend ; l l efren$v»etfe, mode of living; ftcrfrens; 

franf, mortally ill. There are but few other feminines that take $ ; 
but with regard to masculines and neuters not included in the above 
rules, usage seems arbitrary, and often unsettled, many taking $ in some 
compounds and not in others, several others never taking it, whilst 
some are found with and without s in the same compound. Not unfre- 
quently, however, $ is inserted to indicate a partitive relation, that is, 
that the latter component belongs to, or forms a part of, the former. 
Thus we say, <5$}lff$ma$,ship*s mast, but ©cfjifffcfUdrV, a bridge of boats ; 
CUt fiflnboinann, a fellow-countryman, a man belonging to our own 
country; but CanbttiatM, means a countryman, or rustic. 3.) The use 
of the plural in composition is confined almost entirely to nouns form- 
ing their plural in en or er (§ 40); as, £tnbcr|fube, nursery; 2Tclfer- 
re#t, law of nations (different from 2>0lf3re#t, which means the rights 
of the people) ; ^tcilcnjftyev, milestone. 

Obs. 2. Certain words are from their signification particularly fitted 
for being annexed to other words, and may be considered almost 
as annexes. Such are, for instance, substantives denoting greediness 
or desire for anything; as, ©ier, or 2)e$terbe, desire; l*u|t, long- 
ing ; (gtldbt, passion, an ardent desire. Further, 9lvt, hind or manner; 



that causes in long words the uncouth appearance, and difficulty of unravel- 
ling the component parts, so often animadverted upon by foreigners. 

The hyphen, however, is invariably used where the components denote the 
constituent parts, as it were, of the object designated ; as, Spitti5;9?egent, prince- 
regent ; Grngtifd^SeutfcfyeS 5B : 5rter&ud), English- German dictionary. A hyphen 
is further used when two or more successive compounds have the same word 
for their last component, which, to avoid repetition, is generally expressed only 
in the last compound; as, ^ftorgen* un& 9l6en&gef>et, morning and evening 
prayer ; ©cfyreifc* 2)ruct- unb Sofc^poptec, writing, printing, and blotting paper. 

* Regarding the feminine substantives with these endings, see § 45. Obs. 
1 and 2, 



§ 117.] COMPOUND VERBS. 291 

$unbc, knowledge ; and the adjectives derived from them, CJterig, tuftig, 
fu#ttg,avti>},and flltlbiy ; as, ©tibgter or (SelbbC^terbe, love of money ; 
9?CUi}ier, curiosity; ^aufluft, desire of buying; @£lUjr, appetite; 
<&tr eit fucfrt, contentiousness ; @ftrftl#t or (JftrbeQierbe, ambition; 2eb(t\& 
art, manner of living; good-breeding; JpCljavt, kind of wood; StewfUtlbe, 
astronomy ; and so the adjectives nCUyterig, curious; faufJujttg *, desirous 
of buying; Jjctgartig*, ligneous, &c. Among the many adjectives of 
this class we may further notice, 1.) Vft$ and voll, denoting plentiful, 
and leer and \o$, denoting the contrary ; as, DOlf t'et$, populous (literally, 
rick in people) ; fittttTCicfr, ingenious ; gebanfentwll, thoughtful; ru|jm* 
POlf, glorious; \uftkev,void of air ; gebanfeMO*, thoughtless; finilto?, 
senseless. 2.) rtiaj?ta and t'Ccbt, or flerectyt, denoting according cr 
agreeably to; as, gefe|ma^ig, according to law, lawful; &efbenmaf;ij), 

heroic; matTVrrec&r, horizontal; fenfrecfct, perpendicular; regeTrec^t, 

according to rule; fdOtllgerecfct, sfrictf, according to form, or Me schools. 
3.) haltt# (found only in composition), containing; and fevtig, razcfo/ 
/or; as, fllfcer&altig, containing silver; fegelfetttg, razfl^ to sail. 4.) 
Wiir big and werth, worthy; which are annexed chiefly to the infini- 
tives, sometimes to the roots of verbs, which assume then a passive 
sense ; as, ItebenSwUrbtg, worthy of love, amiable; fefien$tt>ert& or fe*Kn& 
WMb'ty, worth seeing ; ttievfttUitbig, remarkable. 

The prefix unf, we may lastly observe, has generally a negative 
power, like the English un ; as, timvflbr, untrue; iMWeife, unwise. It 
may be prefixed to almost all past participles and derivative adjeo 
tives: ungefe&ett, unseen; iinf#Ulbig, innocent; unmoglicfe, impossible, 
&c. With substantives it often denotes bad or ill ; as, Untfjat, a bad 
deed; Unthter, a monster; Unfratlt, weeds; Unttfilfe, indignation. It 
frequently occurs with words which as simples are either not in use, 
or have a different meaning; as, unCjejiUm, boisterous; unaufft'cflicfr, 
incessant ; unttMllfuvltcfc, involuntary, — there being no such words in 
use as geftum, or auf|)drlict) ; and ttUUfur(kf), denotes arbitrary. 

COMPOUND VERBS. 

§117. We have already mentioned (§ 89.) that verbs 
are compounded only with particles J; we shall now ex- 



* As a separate adjective, fufttg denotes merry ; and nrttg, polite, or pretty ; 
which significations they never have when forming the latter parts df com- 
pounds of the above description. 

f This inseparable particle is never prefixed to verbs ; and such verbs as 
fcfunrufyigen, to make uneasy ; uerungliitfen, to fail, &c, are derivatives from 
watufyig, uneasy ; Ungliicf, misfortune. 

| Regarding verbal nouns see § 93. Obs. 3. 

2 C 2 



292 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 117. 

plain the modifications which the latter impart to the sim- 
ple verbs with which they are compounded : — 

1. %b denotes 1.) Off, ovfrom, implying separation, departing, or re- 
moval; as, a6fc|jneiben, to cut off; abge&en, to go off, depart; abtrenben, 

to turn off, avert ; a&failfen, to buy from ; abf#metcbeln, tocoaxbutoffa 
person) ; abfrdyen, to alight. 2.) A gradual fall, decrease, or consuming, 
and figuratively, wearying; as, abbactyen, to shelve off ; abbomtem, to 
roll off, to subside (of thunder) ; abntlgett, to wear by use ; abnehttien, to 
decrease ; abanflfrigen, to weary, to distress. 3.) Conclusion, end; also 
end in the sense of purpose : abredfjllCtt, to balance accounts ; abrebflt, 
to agree upon ; abfefrftt, to see the end, also to purpose (whence dbfyt' 
fefceit, designed ; and 2lbfl#t, purpose) ; abjtelen, to tend to.— In verbs 
denoting customary actions — such as belong to daily life, or as form 
part of a usual business or process — flb implies, going through the 
usual routine of that action, or the performance of a task, as it were ; as, 
abfpeifen, to finish ones dinner ; abfdblacbtetl, to kill (as preparatory for 
cooking) ; abjtvafen, to punish (generally for minor transgressions 
of frequent occurrence) ; aWovitl, to take evidence (of witnesses). 4.) 
Taking off (as a copy): abfcfjreibett, to copy ; a&bUben, to portray, to 
make a copy, (whence, $6&tlb, image) ; f?c|? a&fpiegellt, to be reflected 
(as in a mirror). 5.) Repeal, negation: abfdfrflffett, to abolish; ah 
fcfrwb'rett, to abjure; ahxatfatt, to dissuade; abf#la$ett, to refuse. — 
Thus, also, flbgencigt, averse; abgefcfematft, insipid, absurd; SfbyTUnb, 
abyss. 

2. ${n denotes l.) A direction to, or touching of, an object or its sur- 
face (like the preposition an*, § 105.), and is often rendered by at, 
to, on, or over; as, anfe&eit, to look at ; amM en, to approach ; arte 

reDen, to speak to, to address ; anfii&ten, to touch, to feel; anyTartjjen, to 

border upon ; anfalfen, to fall upon, to attack ; (M(je$en, to set on ; an= 
farben, to paint over. 2.) Fastening, permanent junction: anbitlben, to 
tie on; annageln, to nail on; fid? anftebelft, to settle (at a place); fllt- 
fc&affetl, to procure (for a permanency; Derfcfraffen, *o provide with, 
implies no such accessory idea) ; atlhanfletl, to adhere, to hang on. 3.) 
Beginning, and hence, figuratively, slightness in degree; as, ange&en, 

anfancjen, or anfieben, to begin; anfdjneiben, to cut (anything that 

is whole); anbrettnen, to set light to, to kindle; anrotren, to begin to 
rust, or to be a little rusty; anjtUCfrtCn, to moisten a little on the out- 
side. Thus, also, in the nouns ^n^bbe, a moderate elevation, or rise ; 
^(nflug, coppice ; also a smattering. — This import of an seems to be a 
figurative use of its primary import of exterior, or outside (see § 105. 

* With the distinction, however, pointed out in § 107. Obss. 1. & 2. ; as all 
separable particles are adverbs. 



§ 117.] COMPOUND VERBS. 293 

Obs. l.). By a similar figure it implies, in a few instances, outward ap- 
pearance, semblance; as, fid) anjre(fei1, to feign ; angeben, to pretend, 
— whence, angebltfj), pretended. 4.) A formal address, or wo/ice—im- 
plying that the action is of consequence to one or the other of the par- 
ties; as, anjei^Cn, to announce; anf<X$et\, to notify ; anfutfren, to petition ; 
angclobeit, to vow solemnly ; anetfennen, to recognise (publicly or form- 
ally — erfcnncn denotes to get an insight, to come to a conviction, without 
any reference as to acknowledgment of it). 

3. 2luf denotes 1.) Most relations of the preposition auf (§ 105.): 
aufTegen, to lay on, to.impose; auflaben, to load upon; aufmerfen, to 

pay attention to; aufjafjlen, to enumerate (one after another, as it 
were) ; atlfberoa&ren, to preserve (for future use — see § 106.) ; aufs 
fcfriebett, to postpone. 2.) Up, upwards ; and figuratively, transition into 
a more animated state, or restoration to its former one: ailfffcfcen, to 
stand up, to rise; aufjteigert, to ascend; aufvii&rcn, to stir up; flllfs 
muntern, to encourage ; aufbHtlgen, to irritate; atlfleben, to revive; 
aufwacfcen, to awake ; aujfarben, to dye afresh. 3.) To bring to light, or 
to display, by means of the action denoted by the simple verb; as, auf; 
beef en, to uncover; auffudfren, to search for; atlftxnben, to discover; 
duftvetfen, to show forth, to produce. Hence it denotes also 4.) Open: 

auffciweifren, to cut open; aufbretfjen, to break open; aufplagcn, to 

burst open. 5.) Up, in the sense of consumption or entire use: aufeffffT, 
to eat up ; aufarbeitett, to work up ; aufretbctl, to destroy. A kindred 
import is found in such verbs as atlfgebett, to give up; ailf^eben, to 
abolish ; auffd^CM, to give warning to quit, &c. 

4. 9iu5 denotes 1.) The relations of the preposition ail*; as, ailr- 

treiben, to drive out, to expel; au^feeren, to empty; au»traf)(en, to 

select, to pick out; atl^eidjnen, to distinguish; aUSfctyftefsen, to exclude. 
2.) Extent: auSftretfen, to distend, to draw out; au^breitett, to spread; 

au0|rreuen, to strew, to spread; ausplaubevn, to divulge; au<?tbeiletT, 

to distribute. 3.) Thoroughly, or through all parts : ba$ £)CIU£ QU& 
fucften, to search over the (whole} house ; ail5fU(len, to fill up ; au$: 
ftOpfen, to stuff, to cram; flU^tCron, to adorn, to fit out with ornaments; 
au5beffefn, to repair (all the damaged parts); au5frdyen, to cross- 
examine; to question closely. The same idea would seem to prevail in 
such verbs as auyldCfH'n, to laugh at (a person); fllt^cmfen, to scold 
well; aUi^ifclH'n, to hiss at ; au5pfUgeln, to give a good cudgelling, &c. 
4.) On to the end*, finish: au5f)b'ren, to hear out ; aU*batierrt, to perse- 
vere ; au^lefen, to read to the end; au5f#reiben, to write to the end, 
(e.g. a letter) ; also, in the second import, to circulate by writing; au$- 
rei#en, to suffice, logo to the full end; au*fommen, to get through, to 
be sufficient (whence the noun ^U^fOHIttien, competency); auSfcblafon, 

* Compare note (*), p. 285. 
2C 3 



294 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 117. 

to sleep enough. — In some verbs, as in atlslofcfcen, to extinguish; (X\\i- 
fcremten, to burn out; au^frerbett, to become extinct, &c, the particle 
implies ceasing, or extinction. — The compound tenses of past time of 
most verbs in which atl£ denotes end, are often used figuratively, in 
the sense of over, or gone by ; as, @r fjat aUsgdttten, his sufferings are 
over, at an end ; @ie hat au^Qetan^t, or atl^gefUttgen, she has done 
dancing, or singing ; she will dance, or sing, no more. 

5. 2Sd, which is compounded with but a small number of verbs, de- 
notes to, or at, implying ].) Adjunction, or attribution; as, beifiigen, to 
add, annex; betbinben, to bind to (another thing, additionally); biU 
IHCIJVn, to attribute, to impute. 2.) Assent, or support; as, beijlittimett, 
to agree with, or to accede to (another's opinion); fceitvetflt, to join (a 
party, or league); fceitragetl, to contribute; beiftefyetl, to stand by, as- 
sist ; bfittfOfjnen, to be present (for the sake of countenancing). 

6. (Sin* denotes i.) In, up; as, eiwgieflen, to pour in; einfcfcvei&en, 

to inscribe; einfcfllie^n, to shut up; also, to include; etnwtdfeln, to 
envelope, to ivrap up; einattyltien, to inhale. Sometimes it refers to 
the home, or to the possession of a person ; as, etnfaufVn, to buy in ; 
etnfdfen, to redeem. 2.) Contraction, loss: einfcbrumpfen, to shrink, 
shrivel; dnfOCfKtt, to diminish by cooking, to boil down ; CtnttOdtncn, to 
dry up. 3.) Transition into another, generally a less animated, state or 
condition: tinfctylafen, to fall asleep; etnfcbUcfrtertt, to intimidate; 

einfrieren, to freeze up; emfcbmel^en, to melt down; etnroeicfcen, to 
soak; einfal^n, to put into salt; einraudbern, to fumigate; einmacixn, 
to preserve. With which may be classed such verbs as elnfftfCH, to 

lather; emfprigen, to splash; einfc&mufjen, to dirty; einpubern, to 

powder, Ike— In some verbs cm implies demolition : eittrn£en, to pull 
down (see Obs. 2.); and in a few others, interruption; as, einhaltett, to 
Mop, to hold in ; etll|?eUcil, to put a stop to; einWCtt&fn, to object, &c. 

7. 9J?it denotes participation, or association; as, mitfptelCn, to join in 
the game ; mitmac^en, to do as others do ; mittbdldn, to communicate; 
mitfU&Wn, to carry with one ; mitrecbnen, to include in an account. 

8. 3foc|) denotes after in all its significations ; and implies, therefore, 
1 .) Following the course, direction, or example, of another : nacblatlfcn, 
to run after; nacfrtvagen, to carry after ; nacbfomttteit, to follow ; also, 
to act according to (example or order); tiacbfingeit, to sing after (one). 
2.) Search, inquiry: na#fcrfcbett, to search after; nacbftagen, to in- 
quire after; nacbfcent'en, to reflect; na#fe&et1, to look after; nacb= 
recfrnerl, to reckon after, to examine an account. In a few verbs WCL(i) 



* This is the same particle as the preposition in, being but a different form 
of the latter, and is used chiefly as an adverb, and therefore also in composi- 
tion. In some compound nouns however the form in is used ; as, 3nfd)rift, 
inscription; Snfynft, contents, &c. 



§ 117*] COMPOUND VERBS. 295 

implies yielding, and in a few others it denotes behind: n&ftlaffen, to 
leave of; also, to leave behind; nacfc)gc6en, to yield; cinem etWflj? tiacj?- 
Ytbctl, to say anything behind a person's back. 

9. 2?0r denotes 1.) Before, both in time and space: POrlegen, to lay 
before ; V0V{d}k$?t\, to advance (money); DOvfa&ren, to drive before (the 
house), to drive up; OOV&angCrt, to hang before (anything), — whence 
2?0r(jang, curtain; DOrbebetlten, to forebode, to presage; VQVUbtn, to 
practise beforehand, previously. In several instances some figurative 
acceptation of before, such as leading, anticipation, or prevention, is 
implied; as, DOrtanjen, to lead the dance; DOrarbettftt, to work in pre- 
paration ; fify VQtfetyen, to be on one's guard ; tfCH'betigen, to obviate, to 
prevent. When referring to a person it often implies, for imitation, 
amusement, or for some other purpose: COrfcfcretbcn, to set a writing 
copy (to a person) ; also, to direct, or order ; POrfpielett, to play before 
(one, either to amuse, or to make him play after)', DOrlefen, to read to, to 
lecture. 2.) Forward or forth (like fcevcor) : POrragen, to project; vtX-- 
riidfCrt, to move forward, to advance ; POVbringCJl, to press forward. In 
a few verbs it impVies false pretence ; tWyeben, to pretend, to make be- 
lieve ; porroenben, to allege, &c. 

10. 3"* denotes 1.) To, towards; as, guftifrrni, to lead to; guetlClt, to 
hasten to, or towards ; juerfennetl, to adjudge ; guftymben, to ascribe ; 
gUjreUen, to deliver. In a few instances it implies yielding ; as, JUQeben, 
to admit; JUCjefTe&en, to concede; gulaffett, to allow. 2.) Fitting, ad- 
justment, answering some end or expectation : gUVtdfrteil, to prepare, or 

rfritf; 3Uf#netben, to cw/ ready; gUVCtten, to 5r<?a& in (a horse) ; gu- 
VCtdbcn, to &<? sufficient (for the purpose); JUtveffCII, to agree ; to happen 
(as predicted). 3.) Addition, increase : fltlftfllett, to/// op, to pour to ; 
JUlegen, to add, or augment (whence bie 3 u ^8 e > *** increase, e.g. of a 
salary) ; jugefeden, to associate. (The three preceding significations 
answer respectively to the first, sixth, and fourth of the preposition JU ; 
seep. 250.) 4.) On implying continuation, or haste: ^uitfin, to read 
on; gU^bfetl, to listen to, to attend; jufa&reil, to drive on. 5.) To or 
up implying closing ; ^Uttiacfeen, to shut to ; gllffcpfcn, to stop wp / Julie* 
gelrt, to 5^/ «p / gtmecjetn, to bolt ; junaben, to sew up. 

[The particles buv#, Ubev, unter, and um have been explained § 90. 
— See also the first remark in the following Obs. 2.] 

All the preceding particles are used also as prepositions, except ab, 
which is an adverb corresponding to the preposition Don — the latter 
being never used as the first part of a compound. — The other separ- 
able particles, which are never employed as prepositions, require little 
explanation, as they seldom vary in composition the import which they 
have as separate words ; and the following cursory remarks may there- 
fore suffice : 1.) $Oft denotes on; also away : fortfflfrWtt, to drive on, or 



296 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 117. 

ttway ; also to continue ; fortf^fctt, to read on; fottfTie^cn, to fly away. 
2.) The import of fcer and bin has been explained § 96. Thus, ber- 
fe&etl, to look here, this way ; fcinfcfcen, to look there, that luay; berjtam; 
men, to come from, to descend; Ijinfterfretl, to die away. In a few in- 
stances fyiV implies by rote or customarily; as, frcrfr<?t?n, to repeat by 
rote; berfa#en, to recite. a.) Co? denotes loose, of, or getting free 
from any ties or restraint: l05crecfrt'n, to break loose; l05fcrennen, to 
fire off; (05fnUpfen, to untie. 4.) The particles nieber, down, down- 
wards ; weg, away ; and ttueber, again, or 6ac&, retain exactly the 
same import in composition; as, nieberjreiyen, to descend; nieber; 
fnieen, to kneel down ; tt>e£tt)erfen, to throw away; irecjjrecfen, to put 
away, or aside ; ttneberfCttimen, to come again, or back; ttuebergecen, to 
return, give back. — The verbs compounded with bar and cfr, and with the 
inseparable particles Winter, VCl\, and ttfibcr, being but few, may easily be 
learned from the Dictionary. Regarding mijj, see § 74. Obs. 2. 

Obs. 1. In composition with nouns the above particles have the 
same significations as here explained; as, ^(frgeicfren, badge, mark of 
distinction ; 9lu?lanb, foreign parts ; 2Jcrgimmer, antechamber, &c. The 
greater number, however, of such compound nouns are derived from 
compound verbs; as, Slnfaily}, beginning, from anfangen, to begin; 
9fuftt>arter, waiter, from rtUftrarten, to wait upon; ^n&ana,, appendix; 

em 3fn$anger, a hanger on; anbanyitcb, attached, from anbanyen, to 

hang on. Their full import cannot, however, always be ascertained 
from the primitive verb. — Compare $112. Obs. 2. 

Obs. 2. We add the following remarks:— 1.) The particles nieber, 
Unter, l)in, ein, and um, are all used in the sense of down. The first 
implies simply from a higher to a lower situation ; as, nteberlreiyCn, to 
descend, to go down. Untet" implies down below the horizon, or the 
surface ; as, tmterCjeben, to go down (as the sun), or to sink (as a ship). 
The proper sense of bill has been explained § 97.; the sense of down 
must be inferred either from the simple verb or from the context ; we 
may say binfallen, to fall down; but not binfreivjen for nieberjreiyen. 
(Jin in that import implies destruction of the previous form or struc- 
ture, a crushing down ; as, ^ie 5)?auer fkt em, the wall fell down. Um, 
in agreement with its primary import of round or circular, implies a 
change from an erect position into a horizontal one, so that a section 
of a circle is described by the motion. Thus, itttlfalfen, to fall down, 
can be said only ofpersons, trees, or things standing*. 2.) Both fret and 
mtt denote association; the former implies the relation of a second to 

* The adverbs fyerafc and lj)ma&, which likewise denote down, always refer, 
like all particles compounded with f>er, or fyin, to a specified place. — See §96. 
Obs. 2. 



§ 117.] COMPOUND VERBS. 297 

a principal, the latter that of fellowship, especially when compounded 
with substantives: >8e\fif$tv, assessor; ;$etttame, nickname; also swr- 
' name ; Wltb'UY^CY, fellow-citizen ; £>te 5)?itfc^Ulbtgetl, the accomplices. 
3.) The difference of import in some compounds with an and auf ori- 
ginates merely in the difference of degree implied by the respective 
particles ; that implied by auf being stronger. Thus, anre#en, de- 
notes to incite, to excite our attention, to start (a subject or question), — 
dUfregen, to excite; to stir up; mutagen, to offer,— auftragen, to com- 
mission; fiCb" atlfi^nen, to lean against, — |i# aufle&nen, to oppose, to 
revolt; ba$ %nfC^Cn, the consideration, respect, — M 9(tlffe&en, the sen- 
sation, surprise, 4.) %n and \W in many cases differ, by an referring 
immediately to the object, whilst \w refers to the possession, interest, 
or concern in it ; in other words, it implies the relation of the dative 
case (see p. 54). Thus, anyVCifcn, to touch, handle, also to attack, — 

Sugreifen, to lay hold of; anfaiUn, to fall upon, to attack,— gufaHen, 

to fall to one's share ; anffefjen, to fit, or suit, — JUjtCbCn, to be becomings 
also incumbent upon ; bie tftlgefcoriflen, the relations,— bat 3 u 9 e ^ r ^9 e > 
the appurtenance. 

Obs. 3. The learner will have perceived from the above explana^- 
tions, that various particles are opposed to each other, either in some 
particular significations, or in their general import. Thus, ab is opposed 
to an,' auf, and JU; auf also to JU, and to all the particles denoting downs 
and an to au$. The latter is, however, more generally opposed to eitt 
(like out and in in English). 2?or is opposed to na#. Of these oppo- 
sitions we add the following examples: — a&veifen, to depart; anfonts 
men, to arrive; ab&tnben (or losbinben), to untie; anbtnben, to tie to 

(e.g. to a tree); abwefenb, absent; anwefenb, present ;— ab\abm, to 
Unload (an animal or wagon) ; atlftaben, to load (upon); abftfjen, to 
dismount; aufflfj>en, to mount; a lift and abfcf)fagen, to rise and fall (in 

price) ;— abnefimen, to decrease; gune&men, to increase; abfaa,cn, to 

put off; jufagen, to promise; ah and jugehen, to go to and fro; 
-^auffch1te£en, to unlock; gufcb1tef?en, to foe/*-;— auftau#en, to emerge; 

untenauefcen*, to plunge down; — aufbauen, to build up; einmfjen, or 
nieberteifj en, to pull down;— aufjMfen, to put up ; umroerfen, to throw 

down; — an^Unben, to light {set on fire); au^fofcjKn, to extinguish; — 

au^fii&ven, to export; emfU&ren, to import; au$ ; and eingehen, to go 

in and out ; — »orge()ent> to go before, to precede ; nacfrfJe^en, to follow ^ 



* When compounded with nouns, unter is mostly opposed by ofcer, upper 9 
high; as, Dtertippe, upper-lip; Unterttppe, under-lip. In geographical names 
■we mostly say meter for unter: D&erfrtd)fen, Upper Saxony; Sftieterfncfofen, 
Lower Saxony. 

f In composition with substantives, wt is sometimes opposed to fytnter, 
hind or back: 93orgrun&, foreground; £intergrunt>, background; but more 
generally its form is then porter; as, SQQXiex^, forefoot j %$wbmab t foreivheeL 



298 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§H7. 

to be inferior ; POrfagen, to dictate ; nactjfageil, to say or repeat after 
(one) j VCX%'dt)kl\, to count (to a person to show one is right); nacfr 
ja&lett, to count (after a person to see that he is right). — The diver- 
sity of import caused by composition with these particles, may perhaps 
be better seen from the following examples, in which the English has 
been, more faithful to its Saxon origin: abbrecfretl, to break off ; art; 
frrediett, active, to break (the first piece off) j neuter, to dawn ; atlfs 
brec^en, to breakup; also, to break open; ailSbrCCtjen, to break out ; 
burcbbrec&en, to break through; einctef$en, to break in; lo$&vecrjen, to 
break loose; nieberbreclKn, to break down; unievfrredKtt, to interrupt. 

It might be useful, and perhaps interesting to the curious learner, 
to collect from a dictionary all the words formed by means of the 
above particles and annexes from any single primary verb much in 
use,— such as, fer)en, f?et)en, finben, fcbiagen, &c Thus he would find 

from the verb tragetl, to carry r or bear, only the derivatives, Xrager, 
bearer •, 2rage, hand-barrow, and tragbar, bearable ; but twenty verbs 
are derived from it by means of the above prefixes and particles (as, 
betragen, ertragen, antragen, &c), and from these again twelve sub- 
stantives without annexes (as, 2>etrag, 3intrag, &c), and about sixteen 
other derivatives (substantives and adjectives), formed by means of an- 
nexes. From the verb ger)en are derived in the same manner, twenty- 
six verbs, sixteen substantives without annexes (as, 9fbgang, 9(tlfgang, 
<&c), and about eighteen derivatives with annexes ; altogether, there- 
fore, about sixty derivatives. 

The preceding outlines may suffice to convey a general idea of the 
import of the syllables and words which are most in use in derivation 
and composition, — a knowledge almost indispensable in German, where 
an author frequently forms new words, intelligible only from analogy. 



* # * Some observations on the accidents of German Grammar, intended to 
be inserted in this place, and to which reference has been made elsewhere (p. 
71), are omitted, on finding that they could not be fully proved without fat 
exceeding the limits of this work. 



299 

PART III. 
SYNTAX. 



§ 1 1 8. Syntax treats of the connecting of words in a 
sentence according to the. established usage of a language. 
In this part of the Grammar, therefore, we shall treat, 

I. Of the use of the accidents of declension, — or, more 
accurately speaking, of the use of the article, of the agree- 
ment of declinable words (i.e. of nouns, definitives, and 
pronouns), and of the government of cases. 

II. Of the use of the accidents of conjugation, — that is, 
of the agreement of the verb with its subject, and of the 
use of the tenses and moods. 

III. Of the arrangement or order of words in a sen- 
tence. 

USE OF THE ARTICLE. 

§ 119. The article, whether definite or indefinite, in Ger- 
man, is generally used, or omitted, in the same cases as 
in English ; as, bev ©ojm be£ $ladjkax$ 9 or be$ 9tacbbat3 
©o|)tt, the son of the neighbour, or the neighbour's son* ; 

dne$ §reunbe$ 9totf)*, a friend's advice; 3*1 'tito® ©fttttbe 
fcracfctc er 'Sime, faykt, tmb gebevn, in an hour he brought 
ink, -paper, and pens ; (?r tjl em (?n#lanber, he is an English- 
man ; %#i? jtnb (£»1(}lanber, we are Englishmen, (See also 
the examples p. 59.) We shall therefore notice only the 
cases in which the two languages differ ; of which the fol- 
lowing may be regarded as the principal : — 

* It will be seen from these examples that in German, as in English, the 
substantive preceded by the genitive which it governs does not admit the 
article, being sufficiently determined by the preceding genitive. 



300 SYNTAX. [§ 119. 

The definite article is used in German, contrary to the 
English idiom, 

1. Before nouns denoting an abstract idea — including, 
of course, names of sciences ; as, 2)ie .JDOffhimc}, ba$ Befie 
©efdbenf be£ £tmmel3, hope, the best gift of heaven ; Sa^ 
ld)tt im$ bit ^l)itofopl)ie, philosophy teaches us that. Thus, 
also, fcie Xlt^cnb, virtue; Me 9?atltf, nature; bit gttri^ 
fett, eternity; bit 2)?a#Cttiatif, mathematics; bd$ Oe&eH, 
life, &c. 

2. Before nouns of concrete objects which preclude the 
idea of number, being conceived only in substance, mass, 
or congeries ; as, Sfoccbui, bev ©Ott be3 2Betne^, Bacchus, 
the god of wine ; 2&v tyat ba$ ©cfnegpultxr etfunben? tt^o 
invented gunpowder ? (See the next Ofo.) 

Obs. 1. In German, as in English, a noun in the singular number 
commonly denoting an individual, may be used also to denote the 
8pecies or the whole class, and is then joined not only with the definite 
article, as is mostly the case*, but often also with the indefinite article; 

as, 2)ie, or eine, $ofe i\t eine fcbb'ne 2>lume, the, or a, rose is a fine 
flower; §et\ or eitt, #if# Fann nur im ^Baffer lefcen, the, or a, fish can 
live only in water. However, this indiscriminate use seems to be allow- 
able only in attributing, as in the above examples, such qualities or 
capacities to a whole class as are equally perceptible in each individual ; 
but in attributes applicable to the whole species only, the definite article 
alone is used ; as, 2Do ffamttlt ba» QJferb her? whence does the horse 
originally come? 5)er C'oroe iff bet* £b'nig ber Shtere, the lion is the 
king of beasts. By the definite article, it would therefore seem, 
the noun in such cases receives a figurative import, denoting the re- 
presentative of the species; whilst the indefinite article simply denotes 
any. The same remarks apply to the nouns of the two preceding 
rules, namely, when the attribute refers to the whole extent of the 
object in view — which is the case also when a personification is implied 
— the noun must be joined with the definite article : $romeu)eu$ frahT 
ba? ^yeuer DOm £>tmmel, Prometheus stole {the) fire from heaven (i.e» the 
fire we still possess — without the article it would mean some fire) ; Xie 

2?ernunft rcurbe bem 5J?enf#en gege^en, bamiter, &c, reason was 



* The noun SOtenfd), man, forms no exception, though in English man 
does not admit of any article when referring to the species ; as, £>er 97?enfcfy 
ifl ftetfclic^, man is mortal. 



§ 119.] USE OF THE ARTICLE. 301 

given to man in order that he, &c. Here the article shows that all rea- 
son known to us is meant, and excludes, therefore, all other earthly 
creatures from this gift. Thus also in personifications : dillft tttcbt 

tic s Bei*bcit, unb bte ftiugfrett lafit fid) f/riren? doth not Wisdom cry 

and Understanding put forth her voice ? See also the examples of the first 
rule. But when the attribute would equally be applicable, whether we 
view the subject in its totality only, or without any particular reference 
to its extent, the noun may be used with the definite article, or with- 
out any — these nouns, from the nature of their import, not admitting 
the indefinite article. Thus we may say, %i\UX t or ba$ tft'liev, tft ger= 
trbrcn b,fire is destructive ; 2Betn, or bev -Bern, tft gefitnb, wine is whole- 
some ; 3$ liebe 2Ba&r&eit, or bit ©a&rfjeit, I love truth.— On the other 
hand, the two languages agree in all cases where these nouns cannot 
have any reference to totality; as, ^rf) fratte ^tCUbe, I had joy ; bit 1 

$mtbe <Ste gu fc&en, the joy of seeing you; @r &at ©elb unb 2?evftanb, 

he has money and understanding ; (§r f)at ba5 (Selb, aber ntcftt ben 2?et': 
ftanb bdjll ; he has the money, but not the understanding for it. — See 
also § 66. Obs. 4. 

3. Before the names of the months and days of the 
week; as, Set 3^ ua ^ ^ av tOiW, January was cold; 3d) 
fomme ben 3)?0l1 tag, I come on Monday. Regarding other 
proper names, see § 49. 

4. Before many nouns denoting an object which is the 
only one of its kind ; as, bie l;eif i#e ©cbrift, Holy Writ ; 
ba$ tyaxabk$, Paradise ; Me SldCbWllt, posterity ,- bCV .ginu 
tnet, heaven; tie 2?orfet)lUig, Providence* .— ©Ott, God, does 
not admit the definite article, except when preceded by 
an adjective, or otherwise determined : ber 5lUmacl)ti#e 
@0tt, God Almighty; ber @ott bet £ie6e, the God of 
love. 

5. Instead of the possessive pronoun, if the proprietor 
cannot be mistaken ; as, (?r na&m ben (for femen) $l\t ab 9 
he took his hat off; ®a$ £cben tjr il;m tl;euer, (his) life is dear 
to him. But we must say, (gx fucbte femen .gut, (not ben 
.gut, because we could not know whose,) he was looking 



* In English the article is also often omitted when conventionally only 
one particular object is meant ; but such omission is likewise not allowable 
in German; as, Parliament, &n$ Spnrlirtincnt; Government, t>'u 8?egierung ; in 
town, in bet ©tflfcfcj on Change, iiuf E>er 23orfe, &c. 

c 2v 



302 SYNTAX. [§ 119. 

for his hat ; ji)r (not ba$) £eben ijl itjm tlwter, her life is 
dear to him. 

6. To mark the case, especially the genitive, if it could 
not otherwise be distinguished ; as, bieSBitrbe ber S'Vauen, the 
dignity of women ; <£r gtcfe>t 2Behl bent 2I*aj]er V or 3 he pre- 
fers wine to water. 

The indefinite article, on the other hand, is often omitted 
in German, though not in English, before nouns importing 
social relations, when used as qualifying the preceding 
subject; as, 3& Bin 2>ateV, lam a father ; (?r iff golbat, 
he is a soldier ■> (?t tji &etii(jmt aU ^iuijtter, he is celebrated 
as an artist. 

Obs. 2. We add the following remarks: — I.) The article is often 
omitted before two, or more, successive nouns denoting things that, from 
their standing in some connection to each other, are generally joined 
in our thoughts, and which, if used singly, would require the article; 
as, (5r nct&m i)tlt 1Mb ©tOCf, he took (his) hat and (his) stick. Very fre- 
quently the English and German agree in this respect: i&tra|;en unb 
Page fUllten fid), streets and squares were filling ; gritty Un5 X'tntt 1 1Mb 
$eber, bring us pen and ink. In animated discourse, too, the article is 
generally omitted in both languages; as, 9lUe$ iff Derloren, ©Ut, @()re 
1Mb i}e6en, all is lost, property,- honour, and life. 2.) In prepositional 
phrases, or when forming a component part of a verb (§ 89. Obs. 2.), 
the noun is in many instances used without an article, as in English, 
whilst in others it is joined with an article in German, though not in 
English, — which usage, like the whole phrase, being idiomatic, can be 
learned only from practice. Thus we say, bci £Jofe, at court ; bci Xage, by 
day ; git $ferbe, on horsebaclc ; JU Staffer, by water; auf 3Mfen, at inte- 
rest; JU SSette ^ben, to go to bed ; ©COatter fie&eit, to stand godfather ; — 
and yet we must say, fret bcr $anb, at hand ; Jlir ©ee, at sea ; \wx %m 
bex Ultti), in time of need; bie ©ptge tfeten, to make head; bie $lU#t 

eryreifen, to take to flight ; gur D^ebe frelien, to call to account ; cin ^erj 

fafRtl, to take heart. In some instances the use of the article is op- 
tional ; as, \w renter, or JUV rechtCtl, ^i\X, in right time ; in frejler, or in 
ber frefren, Ovbnung, in the best order. 3.) Infinitives answering to the 
English verbal nouns in ing are in German mostly joined with the de- 
finite article. — See § 91. Lastly, we may observe, that when the En- 
glish a is equivalent to each, it is mostly rendered in German by the 
definite article ; as,fifty pounds ayear, futlfjiQ JJfunb ba$ %afyt; ashilling 
a pound, einen ©drilling ba* Q?funb. — See also § 56. Obs. 4. 

Obs. 3. The definite article is often contracted with the preposition 



§ 120.] CONCORD OF NOUNS. 303 

preceding it. — See § 30. Obs. 3. The indefinite article hardly ever 
admits of such contraction, except with JU, and only in particular ex- 
pressions; as, Jtir (for git etlier) SDaWUng Meneil, to serve as a warn- 
ing; JUtn (for juetnem) barren fralten, to make a fool of a person. The 
contraction weakens the determinative power of the article, and is there- 
fore not always optional. Thus, for instance, it rarely takes place 
when the noun is followed by a relative clause; as, (?r tfOfmt ill bem 
(not im) $flttfe, bd$ @te elttf? fcewc&nteil, he lives in the house that you 
once inliabited. On the other hand, the contraction is preferable be- 
fore nouns denoting time, or other abstract ideas, especially when the 
preposition with its regimen has a kind of adverbial import; as, am 
^Oimtag, on Sunday; im ©inter, in winter; uber'£ $af)V, this day 
twelvemonths; im Jtriecje, in war; also at war ; im (not in bem) (5w}ie, 
in earnest, seriously; am @llbe, at last ; after all (ail bem @nbe would 
mean, at the end of a particular object); gum (not JU bem) ©lUCf, fortu- 
nately. 

COiNCORD. 

§ 120. Regarding the agreement of nouns and the words 
depending on them, the following rules must be observed : — 

1. The article, the adjective, and the adjective pronoun, 
must agree in gender, case, and number, with the substan- 
tive (expressed or understood) to which they belong. Ex- 
amples have been given elsewhere (pages 57 and 59, and 
§ 51. Obs. 7.)- In the following examples the substantive 
belonging to the adjective is understood : Stefw Rmbi i\i 
tnein $ruber, ben anbern ferine icb nicrjt, this boy is my brother*, 

the other (boy) I do not know ; <£& Uefcel .qvbgte^ if? tie 
@ct)Ulb, the greatest (evil) of evils is guilt ; ^ie Xonau iff 

ber <jro§te uuter ben ©trbmen < DeutfcbianD3, the Danube is 

the greatest {river) of the rivers in Germany. See also 
§52. and the end of §29. 

Obs. 1. When the same definitives, or adjectives, define or qualify 
two, or more, successive nouns, they are in English often omitted be- 
fore all the nouns but the first; but this can be done in German only 
when all the nouns are of the same number, and, if in the singular, they 
must be of the same gender too ; otherwise the definitive and adjective 
must be repeated before each substantive. Thus we may say, Wle bie 

fc&bnen 9?oten, 9?elfen, unb Sh'Uc&en (tub oerweift, all the fine roses, 

pinks, and violets are faded; ^cft fenne fetncn $ruber, Dbcilll, unb 
2#efTen, / know his brother, uncle, and nephew. But we must say, 3$ 

ft'jine feine ^ctnr-cfter (sister), fetnen Dfjeim, unb feinen Dfeffen, the 

2 D 2 



304 SYNTAX. [§ 120. 

first noun being of a different gender from the two others. Thus also 
bet* .^Kotf unb bte 2Beffe, the coat and waistcoat; fein Dbeim unb fetnc 

3?effett, his uncle and nephews. 

2. The pronoun referring to an antecedent, must agree 
with it in gender and number, but its case depends on 
some word of its own clause*; as, <£)ie ^inbef, benen (or 
rceldben) ©e $ltmofen #a6en, (tub unten, it)re Gutter (or bte 
Gutter berfelBen) i\i wit t 1) n e n #ef ommen, the children to whom 

you gave alms, are below, their mother is come with them / 
Wo ijr bcr Jjut, ben er Bracbte? w#£T<? *s the hat which he 
brought ? 2>a3 2?olf unb feme (not tjjre. 2?otf being gram- 
matically in the singular number — compare § 127. Rule 5.) 
2lnfuj)ver, the people and their leaders. See also § 63. 

Obs. 2. With regard to the preceding rule, we must, however, remark,, 
1.) When the antecedent is of neuter gender, and yet denominates a 
woman (see § 32.), the pronoun referring to it, generally, resumes the 
natural gender of the noun; as, JjtfJ fentte ba§ $3eib ; bet 9)?ann, mtt 
fcem fte fprid&t, iff t|r 25t*uber, I know the woman; the man with whom 
she speaks is her brother. Thus also in Schiller's poem, bci$ Wi'db(i)(t\ 
a\Jl§ bet* ^rerttbe, all the pronouns referring to "3)?abfJhCn, maiden, are of 
the feminine gender. 2.) In reference to a sentence, or a clause, the 
pronoun is always in the neuter gender; as, <Sf WJtll feinenetnjtyen ©Of) It 

entevfcen; w?\d)?$(orwa$) ifjm roenig (Sfjre mad)t, he wishes to disinherit 

his only son ; which does him little credit ; welclK? (wAo) would refer to 
@0fjn. 3.) The neuter pronoun is sometimes used in reference to two or 
more nouns of different genders ; sometimes, also, in reference to persons 
of both sexes, or whose sex is not regarded (though more frequently the 
masculine gender is used in the latter case): 2Beldbe$ iff beffer, etn 
rii&mlidjer Sob cber etn e&rlofeS Ceben? which is better, a glorious 
death, or an ignominious life? @r perfpracb balb ju febreiben., aucb feine 
3?ict»te perfpracb e£; unb borb bat fetne$ gefci?rieben, he promised ta 

write soon ; his niece, too, promised it; and yet neither (of them) did it ; 

(?tn jebes (for ein jeber) heme tua$ anberes 311 fagen, every one had some- 
thing or other to say (Goethe). 4.) In a somewhat similar manner the 

* This rule will easily be understood if we consider that, as a noun may 
vary in the next proposition the relation or case in which it was in the pre- 
ceding, though not its gender and number, the same must obtain with its. 
substitute, the pronoun. Thus in, " I know the man, the man lives close 
by," the first noun (" man") is in the accusative, the second in the nomina- 
tive, therefore the substitute of the latter must be he or who, though the an- 
tecedent is in the accusative. 



$ 120.] CONCORD OF NOUNS. 305 

neuter pronouns all($, all; ba$, that ; \va* t what, are employed in re- 
ference to people generally, or promiscuously : $I(le» retltU, all are run- 
ning, or every one runs; sffiatf flcfl fucbt, bai finbet fi'cb, (those) who 
seek each other, will find each other. — We have noticed before (§ 64. 
Obs. 2. and § 59. Obs. 3.) the pronouns e$ and btl^ when referring to 
a preceding clause or a predicate : they are however used also, especially 
C?, in reference to a following clause, hut always implying that the sub- 
tance of that clause has previously engaged our attention; as, (5r 

limpet e$ t ba$ er fie liefce; \a er bc&auptet (not e», this being quite 

new to the hearer) fegar, ba# CX fie ItiC gCfe&CM babe, he denies (it) that 
he loves her ; nay, he even maintains that he has never seen her. In several 
idiomatic expressions the accusative e3 has nearly the indefinite im- 
port of the impersonal e^, and is then not always translatable in Eng- 
lish ; as, ey mil einem CUlfnefmien, to cope with (or not to fear) a 
person ; e£ ttlit jettianben (jrtlten, to be of the sentiment of (also to be 
partial to) a person. K 

3. Two or more substantives, or a pronoun and a noun, 
signifying the same subject, the first being explained or 
limited by the following, are said to be in apposition, and 
must be in the same case, but not necessarily of the same 
gender and number; though, if susceptible of a feminine 
termination (§33.)? the latter noun ought to take it if the 
former be of the feminine gender; as, 
2>te Religion, unfer Xrofr, or unfere Xrofferinn, (better than unfer 

Xrbjter), religion our comfort, or our comforter ; id?, !ji)t tfrciinb (or 
3^ r e $mtnbinn, if a female speaks), I, your friend ; feine Xbcr^etteil, 
t>ie Dlielle feine» titty tiiCt**, his follies, the source of his mi fortunes ; 

SBfetn 2?ruber, ber £aufmann, renin ben ©rafiit, Sftren D&eim, my 

brother, the merchant, knows the count, your uncle ; etn 2Bevf Xa|Tb'5> 
be$ gropetl ^tcfjter*, a work ofTasso's, the great poet ; %& bCWUtlbiXt 
ifjlt al» ©Olbflten, / admire him as a soldier — i.e. the object being the 
soldier — but a(s (Sclbat would signify that I, the subject, am a soldier; 

3$ ffe&e nut ein gangling, janfeben eucfe, ben $ielerfa&vnen, I stand 

but a youth between you, the men of long experience. 

Obs. 3. All common names, not merely those of persons, preceding 
proper names denoting the same subject, are considered in German a? 
being in apposition, and therefore joined without a preposition. Hence 
we not only say. ^'o'tttg (Seorg, king George ; ber $lpOtfel #auf, the 
Apostle Paul; but also, ber ^Onat ?3?an, the month of May ; bit ©tab* 
Hamburg, the city of Hamburgh ; bte.^nfel 9)?a(tu, the isle of Malta ; 
biJ» iVdniyretCl? ©panten, the kingdom of Spain. But we must say, ber 

2 d 3 



306 SYNTAX. [{121. 

5To'ni# UOtl ©panicn, the king of Spain, because the two nouns deno- 
minate different subjects. — See also § 49. Obs. 3. 

4. Nouns denoting different objects joined by conjunc- 
tions, are in the same case, and the pronouns referring to 
them must be in the plural number; as, ^er $la$)h\XX 

txtib fern Gutter nut iljren &tynm tuib Sbdbtern warm bort, 

the neighbour and his brother with their sons and daughters 
were there; %d) lie6e fie ttteljr aU ijjn, / love her more than 
(I love) him; 3$ lie&e ftC nte&f aU er, Hove her more than 
he (does). In the latter example the conjunction als con- 
nects the pronouns id) and er, in the preceding one fie 
and ifjn. 

Obs. 4. As may be seen from the last example, the case of the ad- 
joined noun generally depends on some word understood. Hence, 
too, the noun or pronoun in an answer agrees in case with that of the 
question, as both depend on the same word; as, 2Der fommt ha, who 
comes there? bCY 9?ad)frflr, the neighbour; 2£etTl gebort f$ ? ttltr, to 
whom does it belong? to me ; 2De)K" &Ut \)t ba$ ? be$ better?, whose 
hat is that? our cousin's. — With reflective verbs (§ 67.) the noun pre- 
ceded by a(f, or tuie, agrees with the nominative, not with the reflect- 
ive pronoun ; but with transitive verbs used reflectively, it may, ac- 
cording to the sense, agree with either; as, @r frett'Uy (id) Wk eill 9?arr, 
he behaved like a fool ; @r bctracfotet (id) dig Ctnen WdttQVCV, he consi- 
ders himself as a martyr; @r btttad)Ut fi'cij imtnCY, WW Cttt @etf, he is 
always viewing himself, like a coxcomb (does). 

Obs. 5. In conclusion we may remark, that when two or more indivi- 
duals of the same species, or class, are respectively qualified by a different 
adjective, the substantive, when expressed only after the last adjective, 
is in German, contrary to the English practice, put in the singular num- 
ber; as, bet* eng(tfct;e Unb franjb'flfcbe £onig, the English and French 

kings; bie beutfcbe, ^riecfetfdbc un& latcinifrie ©prac&e, the German, 

Greek, and Latin languages. The singular number is used sometimes 
also when a substantive refers to each of the individuals implied in the 

sentence; as, ©ie wiivben (Sefa&r faufen ben tfopf 311 Perlieren, they 

would incur the danger of losing their heads. 

That after any number ending in ein, the noun is in the singular, 
and after those ending in fyalb, in the plural, has already been noticed. 
(See pp. 115 and 119.) 

CASES. 

§ 121. The nominative is independent, and therefore can- 
not, in strictness, be considered as the regimen of any other 



§ 122.] NOMINATIVE. 307 

word. The other cases must depend on, i. e. be the regi- 
men of, some other word in the sentence. Such governing 
words are either verbs, adjectives (or adverbs), substantives 
(which, however, can govern only the genitive* — see 
§ 123.), or prepositions. The latter having been fully 
explained before (§ 100 to § 109), will not be further no- 
ticed here. 

USE OF THE NOMINATIVE. 

§ 122. The subject of the verb,, whether the latter be 
active or passive, is in the nominative case (§ 28. obs); as 
2)er j?cm# fommt, the king comes ; & t tturb cjeflviifjt, he is 
greeted. With the following verbs not only the subject 
but also the noun following them, is in the nominative case: 
fern], to be ; JKtben, to become ; 6let6en, to remain : \ s and the 
verbs importing being named, viz. tyeifjeu, in the sense of 
to be called ; and the passives of the verbs ncnncn, to name; 
taitfen, to christen ; fcJKlten or fcJ;rnipfen, to call by way of 
abuse ; as, (£r tft (or Witb) CUl md)CV 3)?ami, he is (or becomes) 
a rich man ,• 3$ bleiBc 3l;v 5'tetUib, / remain your friend ; 

(it wuxbt von ii)v em 25etrii t qcr #enamit or gefcfjolten, he was 

called a cheat by her. The impersonal, e$ $icbt, there is, 
however, governs the accusative, like the personal verb 

>]e6en, to give: (ginjl $ab ix> ehten 2?ater, bev &c, once there 

was (or lived) a father, who fyc. 

Obs. 1. The two nominatives in the above verbs may be considered 
as being in apposition, implying that the two nouns denote one and the 
same individual; hence when fepn and wetben denote possession, they 
govern other cases (see pp. 313 and 320). Hence also the verbs of 
naming, used actively, govern both nouns in the accusative; as,(Ste nattntC, 
fcief?, or fc&alt, ben 3)?ann etnen ^etviiCjer, she called the man a cheat. We 
may further observe here, that when the identity is given as a mere in- 
dividual opinion, the second noun is construed with fur . ^Cr 3J?aiW 

rotrfc fiir* einen 2)etruger gebalten, the man is thought (to be) a cheat. 

The second noun is construed with 3U if the character denoted 



* The second nouns in such expressions as " brother to the king," *' secre- 
tary to the duke," are in German in the genitive. 

•f The verb f< fyeinen, to appear, is generally classed with these verbs ; but 
the second nominative evidently belongs to the verb fei)tl, which is understood ; 
as, (fr fcljeittt mit cin Zi)0X (i. e. ju feijn), he appears to me (to be) afoul. 



308 SYNTAX. [M? 3 - 

is caused through the action expressed by the verb ; as, (5r ft> Urbe VCt\ 
ii)X Jlim pettier CjemactH, he was made a beggar by her. See also the 
7th signif. of \W § 105. 

Obs. 2. What in some languages is called the vocative case, that is, 
the object addressed or called upon, is in German always in the nomi- 
native, being in fact unconnected with any other word; as, ^5^nCfl, 

mem #err ! barf tc^ e$ faflen, to you,sir.' I may say it; ^fmenmemem 

£Kfren, would mean to you, who are my master. Interjections, too, are 
commonly joined with a nominative case: D tdb UnglUcflicher, O unfor- 
tunate man that I am! ber 9?arr, O the fool ! Sometimes they are 
joined also with other cases; as, be£ barren, O the fool J mid) tin- 
£lUcf lichen, O unhappy me J 2FoM, tt>efr> and fretl are joined with the 
dative case; as n)0f)l miv ! it is well for me ; we&e tfjm ! woe to him ! 
foeil bem JTdniy} ! God save (lit. hail) the king ! 

THE GENITIVE. 
§ 123. Concerning the use of this case the following 
rules may be observed : — 

1. One substantive determining another denoting a dif- 
ferent thing is put in the genitive case; as, 

3)Cr (SiCjent&Umer be? (Sarten5, the proprietor of the garden; be* $tatf)t 
tar? $<\ui, the neighbour's house ; bie Cange ber 6tra^e, the length of 
the street; ein Xbetl ber (Sefettfd)aft, apart of the company ; b\C Otefre 
ber ©Item, the love of the parents (in which phrase it can be known 
only from the context whether the parents be the subject or the object 
of love). 

Obs. 1. It is hardly necessary to observe that after numerals, adjec- 
tives (especially in the superlative), and adjective pronouns, the govern- 
ing substantive is often understood ; as, 5jwei biefer Beilte, two (indivi- 
duals) of these people ; ber brttte be? 3}tCltat$, the third {day) of the 
month ; bet* fobcbfte after 25erye, the highest (mountain) of all mountains ; 
jeber berfelben, each {person) of them; tuele ber $elben, many of the 
heroes (compare § 52.). Poets sometimes even omit the adjective pro- 
noun : 3>ie $acbe bie mid) perfect if? niciu (supply bie) be$ irbifrfren 

Stidbter?, the revenge which pursues me is not that of the earthly judge. 

Obs. 2. From some of the above examples, and from those in $ 119, 
it will be seen that in German, as in English, it is often optional to put 
the genitive either before or after the noun on which it depends. It 
must, however, be observed, that this option ceases, at least in prose, 
if the governing word has reference to number, and the genitive is 
joined with an article; for then the genitive preceding the governing 
word denotes its species or kind, whilst when following, it denotes a 



§ 123.] GENITIVE. ,'309 

quantity of definite individuals, of which the governing word forms a 
part. Thus, (5$ gieBt bev $etrUqcr tuele (which is equivalent to ptele 
iSctViJyer) in bcr ^2Del t, denotes there are many cheats in the world ; but 

oiele bet* Setriiger means, many of the cheats; 3>ev guten iSemaibe 
war nuv eine fleine ^(ngabl im e>aale, of good pictures there was but a 
small member in the saloon ; but etne fleine ^Inja&l'ber gutcn ©emalbe 

tt> (XV &c, would mean, a small number of THE good pictures was fyc. (the 
others being elsewhere). Numerals governing the genitive of personal 
pronouns are hardly ever used in a partitive sense — i. e. they express 
the whole, and not apart, of the quantity of that genitive, the latter 
denoting, in the way just mentioned, the kind of persons indicated by 
the numeral, and therefore must always precede it ; as, 3$ &af:e t(jvei' (or 
beren, see p. 134) me&rere, I have several of them, i. e. of their kind ; 
unfer einer, one like (not of, for which we say einer pen Ull5) us, or like 
me; Reiner cier fonnen ba3 nicbt aufbefren, four like thee cannot lift that 

up*. Analogous to this are such expressions as, @£ finb unfer feci}? 
(tforer adbt), there are six of us {eight of them). This observation ap- 
plies, in a great measure, also to relative pronouns; as, 2)Ucbery beren et* 

piele betlet, ron benen (not beren) eraber rpentge gelefen feat, booksof 

which he has many, but of which he has read few. It will be perceived 
that the first relative refers to books as a species, the second to particu- 
lar books. 

Obs. 3. When two nouns are joined, of which the first denotes quan- 
tity, (i. e. weight, measure, or number,) and the second the substance 
or species of it, the latter is, generally, not declined, except that it 
takes the plural inflection ; as, etn -$ftinb $leif#, a pound of meat ; ein 
(StUcf i£vob, a piece of bread; eine 3R enge $tnbet', a number of children ; 
brei $laf$en ^IBein, three bottles of wine (see also the 3rd rule of § 43). 
Such expressions as etn ^Regiment £)Ufaren, a regiment of hussars ; eine 

$eerbe ©chafe, a flock of sheep ; etn (Sericbt $ifdn\ a dish offish ,- eine 

©Cfynur }Jerleit, a string of pearls ; etn 2E>a#en £)0lg, a wagon-load ofivood ; 
&c, are of the same description, the first substantives having refer- 
ence to the quantity of the latter. In the preceding cases the first noun 
may be considered as defining the extent of-the quantity of the second, 
so that the two nouns do not denote different objects; but when the 
second noun is preceded by a definitive, so that its quantity is of a larger 
extent than that indicated by the governing noun, it is put in the ge- 
nitive, or construed with r>on ; as, etn ©lay be? beften -Betne$, or con 
bem beften $3eine, a glass of the best wine •, eine s lVenge biefer 25'oye.l, a 

number of these birds. It may easily be perceived that the nouns deno- 

* As the genitive relation is, with reference to personal pronouns, express- 
ed either by uon (see Obs. 4.) or by possessive pronouns, this is the only way 
in which their genitive can be used according to the first rule, i. e. as the re- 
gimen of a noun (expressed or understood). 



310 SYNTAX. [§ 123. 

ting quantity are construed in German as numerals, and we say, eilie 
2)?enge Orter, and etne 5)?enyC biefer QtkX, a number of eggs,2LX\<\ anumbcr 
of these eggs, just as we say jwblf (twelve) @ier, and gtt?'dff liefer @ier. 
However, when preceded by an adjective, the second noun may be put 
either in the genitive, or in the same case with the preceding noun, 
which latter is especially the case in colloquial language; as, £)ier if? 
ein @(a5 rot&etl $3eine?, or rot&er 2Bein, here is a glass of red wine ; 

em $funb 6cKanbtfcber, or fcetfanbifdOe, Sutter, a pound of Dutch butter. 
In the dative plural, the second noun occurs with and without its in- 
flection of n ; as, mit einer 3Jfenge £inbern, or £inber, with a number 

of children. 

Obs. 4. The relation of the genitive is frequently expressed by the 
preposition con. Besides the cases mentioned before (p. 249, under 
POn), we may notice the following: — 1.) With all personal pronouns, 
as well as with adjective pronouns when not preceded by an article 
(§ 62) ; chiefly, however, when a partitive relation is implied ; as, ber 

fceire con euefr, the best of you ; jrcet con i&nen, two of them; ein^reunb 

VOn mir, a friend of mine * ; ba» (S'llbe bacon, the end of it (or of that; 

see§ 64. Obs. 4.) ; ber fe£te con atfen, the last of all; etne$ con ceiben, 

one of the two {things). 2.) When implying a severing ; as, 3tfitt1ttt eitt 

$funb con biefem pttcer, take a pound of this powder ; bk -2Botle con 
gtt»ei ©cfrflfen, the wool of two sheep. The mere partitive relation, 
without the idea of severance, is best rendered by the genitive case ; 
though in several instances either construction is admissible; as, (In 
X&ett ber @ta&t, or von ber f&tabt, a part of the city ; ber treuef?e mei* 
ner #reunbe or von meinen #reunben, the most faithful of my friends. 
3.) After all superlatives with am (§54.), @r if? am £i iitf licbiren con alien 

t&ren ^Inbem, he is the happiest of all her children; 2>er VLbkV fltegt 
am fcb'ctften con alkn 2?b'geln, the eagle flies highest of all birds. 4.) Be- 
fore proper names of places, b'\<i @intt>0&ner con $axi$, the inhabitants of 
Paris; bk 25eLlO,erum) con $racj, the siege of Prague. Other geographi- 
cal names, too, when without an article, are more commonly construed 
with C011, especially if referring to possession, or to the title of a person : 

bk (5roberu.no. con STOatta, the conquest of Malta; ber JTb'nig con @ng s 
lanb, the king of England; ber Jjjerjog con !$raunfcf)tcei;j, the Duke of 
Brunswick. The pronouns jenianb f, somebody ; nkmanb \, nobody ; icer, 



* Before substantives with the Saxon genitive ( — s) the English of is 
likewise rendered in German by won ; as, a soldier of the king's, einer Don be$ 
&onig$ ©otbnten ; a friend of my father s, einer von ben greunben meine* 
SSnterS. 

-f- Except the adjectives in such expressions as jemnnb frcmbeS, some stranger; 
nienmnb nnberS, none else, $c, which are genithes, existing already in Old 
German (seeGrimm"sD.Grammatik,vol.iv.) However, according toAdelung, 
such expressions ought to be avoided as vulgar. 



§ 123. 



GENITIVE. 



311 



who ; and bei'jeni^e, he' who, do not govern the genitive case, and the 
partitive relation implied must be rendered by one of the prepositions, 

t)cn,au$, or unter; as, niemanb von (or inner) mb, none of you; jemanb 
au? ber $amiUe, some one of the family ; biejenigen unter Cor pon) ben 

©tllbenten, those of the students. Before the name of the month in dates, 
and after numerals in erlei (§ 57.), the English of is not expressed in 
German; and seldom after the nouns, %XX,sort or kind ; and ©attung, 
species ; as, ben flWOlfteil %px\\\the 12th of April ; aUCXlcl Unfi'nn, all 
sorts of nonsense ; eine 9Xl't $01$, a sort of wood ; eine ©Jttunfl #ifcfoe 
(also PCI! $ifcj)eit), a species offish. 

2. With regard to verbs governing the genitive, the 
following lists are generalty given by grammarians : 



a.) Neuter verbs: 

acfcten,*o mind. 

bebUrfen, to stand in need of. 

bevje&veil, to wish or ask for. 

frrauefcen, to want. 

entvatben, to dispense with. 

entbe&ren, to be, or do, without. 

erwa&netl, to mention. 

geniefSen, to enjoy. 

flfbenfen, to remember, think of. 

barren, to wait for. 
I a cb en, to lauuli at. 



p ("leg en, to nurse. 

fepn, to be (in the sense of belong- 
ing to, see obs. 5.). 
fvbOneit, to spare. 
fpCtten, to mock. 

pevfe&len, to miss. 

revgeifen, to forget. 

wafer neftmen or gewaftr trerben, to 

perceive, become aware of. 
WflVtCn, to wait for ; also, to tend. 



Examples: @r acbtet metne3 3vatfte# nidU, he does not mind my advice 
(when denoting to esteem, ad) ten requires the accusative) ; $>ir pfle^ten 
felnet (or tfjn, see obs. 5.), we nursed him ; (§ebeilfe meiiter, remember 
me. 

b.) Reflective verbs, i. e. verbs governing the genitive 
besides the accusative of the reflective pronoun : 



fid) anne&men, to interest oneself 
for, to lake the part of. 

— bebieiien, to make use of. 

— beflCtpen, to apply oneself to, to 
study. 

■ — be^eben, to resign, give up. 

- bemdcbtiHen or bemetffern, to 

take or bring into one's possession. 

- befefretben, to resign, submit. 



fl : > J) b e ft n tl e n ,to recollect, to consider. 

— entau§ern, to divest oneself of 

— ent&altett, to abstain from. 

— entfdllaaen, to dismiss (from 
one's mind), to rid oneself of 

— entfinnen or erinnern, to re- 
member, to call to one's recollec- 
tion. 

— erbarmen, to take pity. 



312 SYNTAX. [§ 123. 

fid; cnre&reil, to defend oneself. mC)Jtt\, or erfU&non, to dare a 

— freuen or crfreuen,/o rejoice at. thing). 

— getrb|ten, to hope and trust. fid) ccrfe&en, to expect, to be pre- 

— rii& men, to boast of. pared for (a thing). 

— fcbamcn, to be ashamed of. — WetCjeW, to refuse. 

-— tMitevfutigeit, untemnnben, &«* 

Examples: 3$ evbarmre micb fetner, I tool pity on him; 2>cbtenen 
iSie fid? befTen, »na*c «*<? gf £; 3d) fennte micb be? CadjcnS nieftt tnt* 

Oalten, I could not refrain from laughing ; $X fcatte fid) befleit ntd?t DCr: 
fc^t'll, /2(? was not prepared for that. 

c.) The following transitive verbs, which having two 
objects, a person and a thing, take the former in the accu- 
sative and the latter in the genitive : 

anffa^eil, to accuse, indict. ennrb'&nen, to break (one) of a ha- 

bCVaubCM, £o bereave. bit, to wean. 

6c|dHJlbiyCH, £o impute, charge. UfcctfU&fCn, fo convince; to convict. 

entbtnben or entlebigen, £o release, tibexfyeben, to spare, save (one the 

deliver. trouble). 

ClltblCpen or etltffeiben, £o rfiivswf ufcerjetlflen, to convince, persuade. 

or deprive of tU'rfldKVn, to assure. — See, how- 

entlabcn, ifo relieve, disburden. ever, p. 320. 

eittt a fieri, to dismiss from . W U r b i g e n , £o tf<?/gra. 

CJUft'gCn, £o discharge or dismiss gei&eil, /o accuse. 

(from an office). 

Examples : @inen be$ Dtebffa&ld anflagen or befduilbiqcn, /© acciM? 
<m<? of theft; (?r n>urbe femes (Sibe* entbunben, unb feines 9lmte$ ent= 

fcgt, /ze" w«a* released from his oath and dismissed from his office. 

Obs. 5. We add the following remarks: — 1.) Several verbs of the 
above lists are construed also with prepositions (cm, DOtl, or ubcr) in- 
stead of the genitive, especially in colloquial language. Thus we may 
say Pen Ctira5 entbfepen or entfleibetl, to bare, or strip of anything ; 

frcb an ctwaS ertnnevn, to recollect a thing; u'ber einen fpotten*, or 

faCflen*, to mock, or laugh at one; fid) tibiX ettt»a$ frCUCn, to rejoice 
at anything. All the verbs of the first list, with the exception ofgeben- 
fen (in the sense of mentioning), barren, lacfyen, and fpotten, often 
take the accusative instead of the genitive. Upon the whole it may 
be said, that the genitive as the regimen of verbs, is more peculiar to 
poetry; where, indeed, many other verbs are, in imitation of the Old 
language, joined with the genitive, although they never take this case in 



* With the genitive, however, tnd)en and fpotten imply rather defiance, or 
contemptuousness, which is not the case with the above construction. 



§ 123.] THE GENITIVE. 313 

prose. Thus we sometimes meet with such expressions as, firf) }ebe$ 
@rcuel£ erfred&en, to dare any atrocity; feine* $alk$ fro^locfen, to 
exult at his fall; ber 9?ofen t pflUcfen, to pluck roses ; bes; 2Betne^ f tvin-- 

fen, to drink ivine. 2.) Several verbs are only in particular expressions 
joined with the genitive ; as, eilten be6 Cartbe^ Derweifen, to banish one 
from the country ; eitien eittC$ Seffetn btltfyxm, to teach one better, to 
correct one of a wrong opinion ; ftcl? fctnet £)aut Wtfyvtl], to defend one's 
life ; ber £>offhung, or bt$ ©faufcen^, teben, to live in the hope, or in the 
belief; fid) 6et einetn ^atfctf er^Clen, to ask advice of anybody ; e$ lO&nt 
ber 9)iU^e nicbt, it is not worth the trouble ; and several others, which 
must be learned from practice. 3.) The verb fetjn, like the verb to be 
in English, is joined with the genitive, if property, or belonging to, is im- 
plied,- as, (Bo ycbet bem £aifer wa$ be£ jlaifers ijr, roufer therefore 

unto Ccesar the things which are Caesar's. See also § 59, 055. 1. But in 
this and similar instances the genitive may perhaps depend upon a noun 
understood ; in many other instances, however, the case seems to de- 
pend merely on the verb ; as, ^cfo fcitt %fyX?X ^etnung, J am of your 

opinion; ($x if? reinen ^erjens, he is of a pure heart ; Qat if? meines 
$mte» n\ti)t,thatis not my business or duty; @ie ijr meineS ©efdbtecbte*, 

she is of my sex, &c. 

3. The following is a list of the adjectives and adverbs 
that require the genitive case:^- 

[Those marked with a star may be construed indifferently with the ac- 
cusative or genitive.] 

anfidfrtig (werben), (to get) a sight of. ing, with respect to. 

frebiirftig or fcendt&igt, in want or f unbtg, acquainted with, skilled in. 

need of. *lO», rid. 

beWUft, conscious of. ma#tt£, in possession or master of. 

eingebenf,n-mew6mMg, mindful of. *mube, fatt, or uberbriiflig, tfr«f, 

fa&tg, capable of. or .$*'<?& of. 

fxofy(wexben),enjoying, happyvfith. fdWlbtg, gw'% of. 

*§tXC<X$x(XOiXbtX\),(tobecome)aiuare fiCbtX, sure, certain of. 

of. t&tityaft or tbetlfcafttg, partaking 
■ tfW'd I'tig, expecting. in. 

geroij;, rerfaw of. t>erba#ttg, suspected of. 

•geWO&nt, accustomed to. »erlu|rig,/or/h'ferf. 

fcabbaft (werben), (to get) posses- *vciUfull of. 

t «ow of. Weruj, worth; worthy of. 

()infi#tfi# or tUtf ft#tli#, rcgarrf- Wiitbiy, wor% of. 

f This is analogous to the French article partitive, which was in full use 
in old German. See Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, Vol. "4. 

2E 



314 SYNTAX. [$ 124*. 

Examples: %d) bin beffen (or ba3) miibe, / am fr'ra/ o/ that ; @r itf 
feiner <Sa#e geroif?, Ae « certain of his point; einer @a#e geroavtig 

feptt, to be in expectation of a thing; 3$ bin biefer @(jre nict?t WUr^ 
big (or roert()), / am wo* worthy of this honour; @3 i|t bev 9)iU&e 
wertt), i£ i« wor^ while (in reference to price, n)ert& requires the accu- 
sative : <§,$ ift ba$ ©elb trertfj, ft is wort^ *A<? money); ©ie i|i be|fen(or 
ba^u) fa&ig, s^<? is capable of it; einer (or eine) (Sack geroa&r roerben, 

to perceive or descry anything ; feinei? Cefren3 frofr irerben, to enjoy one's 

life- (fro() iifcev ettraS, denotes glad of anything) ; vtU guten 2Beine$ 

(or guten %Beit\),full of good wine. When compounded with un they go- 
vern the same case; as, metner vJBavnung tineingebenf;, unmindful of my 
warning ; be£ 2Begei> unf linbiy, unacquainted with the way. 

Poets join a great many adjectives with the genitive — as fret, lebig, 
j?0lj, &c. — which usually are construed with prepositions. 

4. The genitive is often used as a mere modification of 
the verb, without being the regimen of any other word in 
the proposition*, and is then called the adverbial genitive. 
Thus the adverbs formed from adjectives combined with 
$£dfe, or 2)?aj?ertj are adverbial genitives, — see page 219. 
Of the same nature are the genitives of the 2nd remark in 
the last Obs, Time also is frequently denoted by genitives 
of this description. — See § 106, Obs, The adverbial geni- 
tive, which, as may be seen from the examples here alluded 
to, mostly consists of a substantive and an adjective, or par- 
ticiple, cannot however be employed optionally of all nouns, 
but is limited to particular expressions sanctioned by usage, 
of which we subjoin some further examples: — 

gerabe» 2Bege£, straightways ; metne5 SPiffenS, as far as I know; 

ebener @rbe wofcnen, to live on the ground floor ; (§ef>e beiner 2Bege (or 
beines 2Bege£); go your way ,• grb'jsten Xf>etl3,/or the most part; ite&en; 

ben $tl£e£, immediately (stante pede in Latin)/ unvevvid)Uttt<5aibt, 
without having obtained one's end, &c. 



USE OF THE DATIVE. 
§ 124?. The dative does not denote the immediate object 

* Hence it is sometimes called the genitive absolute when used in this way. 



§ 124.] THE DATIVE. 315 

of the action (which is the office of the accusative), but the 
mediate or indirect object of it, the person* for whose be- 
nefit or injury it is done. Accordingly, with verbs that have 
both an immediate or direct, and a mediate or indirect ob- 
ject, the former is put in the accusative and the latter in the 
dative; as, 

3$ jetgte (fcfcicfte, gab, cevfpradb, cerfauftc) 3&rem $ruber &en 

3ftn3, 2" showed {sent, gave, promised, sold) tot your brother the ring; 

etnem cm>a$ perrathen (fagen, fcfcreiben, &c), to reveal {tell, write, &c.) 

ant/thing to a person (einett VCXXatfytn means, to betray aperson) ; eitiem 

©cfrmerjen »erurfacben, to cause pain to a person ; ($x hat mix etn 25ucb 

^efauft, he has bought (forf) me a book. (See also the examples, p. 59.) 

Obs. I. In English, as may partly be seen from the preceding exam- 
ples, the sign of the dative case is to, or for, either expressed or under- 
stood. However, when to notes merely the object of the direction, 
without any reference to interest or concern, it is not the mark of the 
dative, and must then be rendered in German by an, or 311 ; as, Address 
yourself toMm, wenben (Sic ft# an i&n. Thus also, 3$ fc&icfte metnen 

25cbtcntCn gll %fyxem DfKtttt denotes, J sent my servant to your uncle, 
implying for some purpose of my own, for instance, to inquire for 
something; but 3$ fe&icfte %$xtm D&ctm mcinen 29ebienten means, 

I sent your uncle my servant, namely, for his benefit, e. g. to assist him. 
We may say etneni, or an Ctncn, fcbtetben, to write to a person ; the 
former phrase has some indirect reference to what we communicate, 
though this may not be mentioned, and generally relates to persons who 
expect to hear from us ; but ail Ctncn fcbretbett means merely, to ad- 
dress aperson in writing: 3$ fcfrricb an Den ^Otttfl,, / wrote to the king. 
Thus also fagcn, if equivalent to tell, is construed with the dative ; but 
if construed with 311, it can be rendered only by say ; as 3$ faCjte i&tt! 

aiit§, Hold him everything; 6agen @ie metnem £utfc&er, bag &c, tell 

(to) my coachman that, &c. ; 2)a$ ij? fonberbar, fafltC Cr JU l$X,thisis 
strange, said he to her. When to refers merely to the outward form or 
behaviour, it must be rendered by gegen ; as, He was polite {rude, con- 

descending, &c.) to me, er trar fcofficfc (flrob, herablaffenb, &c.) $c&?n 
mid). 

* The accusative applies equally to persons or things ; but the dative, from 
its implying the idea of being interested in an event, is naturally applicable only 
to persons, or personified objects ; for which reason itis also called the personal 
case. It must be allowed, however, that in many of the instances wherein 
inanimate objects are in the dative, the personification is not very obvious. 
See Obs. 4. 
f See the next Obs. 

2 E 2 



316 SYNTAX. [§124. 

For, as the mark of the dative in construction with verbs, has the 
accessory idea of causing gratification, or the contrary ; but if denoting 
merely providing for, without any reference to the feeling of the object, 
it is rendered by filr ; as, 3$ $abe %$t\et\ ttwat mtt^efcracfrt, I have 
brought something for you, — i. e. for your gratification; ^m XVCtl (not 
tt?em, unless we know that it is intended as a present) faufett ©te baS 
$ferb ? for whom do you buy this horse ? ®0tt forgt fUr UttS atte, God 
provides for us all (compare also Obs. 8, of this section, and § 105, Obs. 
8). In some instances the German dative is rendered in English by 
from; as, (5r VtXfytfytit Ittif bit 2Ba&r&ett, he concealed the truth from me ; 
@ie j?af>f tfjm bte U^r, she stole the watch from him. As the regimen of 
compound verbs, the noun corresponding to it in English is frequently 
governed by a preposition answering to the German separable particle ; 
— seethe examples of the next rule. Poets use the dative also where, 
in prose, a preposition is used; as, Jftfj ftaune bem (for UbCY bdv) 
-3Dunber, I am astonished at the wonder. 

Obs. 2. The dative m'lt, for me, is often, but chiefly in colloquial lan- 
guage, used emphatically, implying that a thing is quite after one's mind 
or idea, or, ironically, the contrary; as, §a lO&e t# mtf ba$ ©Olbaten 
Men, I praise a soldiers life, that is the life for me ; 2)a£ nenite id? 
mtf einen £>elben, that is what I callahero. The pronouns btr,/or thee, 
and 3^nCtt,/or you, are sometimes used in a similar manner to excite 
the hearer's attention, or surprise ,• as, ^<x% if? 3^ nen ? m $?ann, ber vet*, 
fttfyet 3finen fllle$, *A«£ w a man for you, he understands anything. With 
an imperative, mit* has often the force of rendering the order more au- 
thoritative ; as, Xfwc mtr bem £na6en tti#t$ ju £etbe, do not do any 
harm to the boy (if you will not offend me)*. 

The following special rules on the use of the dative are, 
for the most part, but illustrations of the above definition 
of this case : — 

1. If the object of a compound verb depends chiefly on 
the separable particle, it is in the dative, if it be a person 
(see Obs, 4), whether the verb be transitive, governing an 
accusative besides, or intransitive ; as, 
etnem etwat aufTe$en (unterteyen, or uorlegen), to lay anything upon 

(under t or before) a person, — which may be solved into ettt?a$ auf (tMter, 

or cor) einen legen (see however Obs. 4) ; etnem etwai einreben, toper- 

* This use of the personal pronouns is, as may be seen from some of the 
above examples, not foreign to the English idiom, and more especially in the 
imperative: "Rob me the treasury," says Falstaff; which we should best 
render literally, ^plimbere nut bte ©cfjn^fnmmer.. 



§ 124-.] THE DATIVE. 317 

suade a person to any thing; eirtem auflauevn, to waylay (lit. to watch 
for) aperson ; einem t\\X><X§ abfailfeil, to buy anything from a person. 

Except compounds with an. which, if implying mo~ 
tion or direction (see an, p. 292), require the person to 
which an refers to be in the accusative, if it be the only 
regimen of the verb ; as, dnen anreben, anfe&en, anlacfceln, 
to address, to look at, to smile at, a person. But if no mo- 
tion or direction is implied, or if there be two objects of 
the verb, the person must be in the dative, according to 
the preceding rule ; as, 2)a^ frdjet nth* lltdbt an, that does 
not Jit, or suit, me ; dlKtU CtWdv anjjail#en, to attack any- 
thing to a person* 

Obs. 3. The preceding rule obtains also with verbs compounded with 
the particles, 3upor,bet>ot\ ocran, or corau5, before; t>orU6er orporfcef, 

by (see § 107, Obs. 4) ; and the object referred to by the particle is 
therefore in the dative ; as, (5r eilte mtr t)Orau£, he hastened on before 
me ; @te f CtntnCII mtr jUtW, you anticipate me (lit. you come before me). 

It needs hardly to be observed, that the above rule cannot apply to 
compounds in which the import of the particle is not distinctly or se- 
parately felt; as in such verbs the case required depends on the sense 
conveyed by the whole compound, and not on that of any component 
part. Thus, abbanfen, to dismiss ; au$fte(jen, to bear, govern an accu- 
sative, though fcdttfen, to thank, and fte&en, to stand, are neuter verbs 
in German. Such accusatives, however, originated probably in the 
idiom noticed p. 323, Rule d. 

Obs. 4. In the preceding examples the dative depending on the par- 
tick, indicates that the object is interested in the action ; but when a 
local relation only is to be indicated, the governed noun being either a 
thing, or a person considered merely as an object in space, or time, it is 
construed with a preposition, which in some instances is repeated as a 
component part of the verb (etma$ an CittCtl $faj)l an&inbcn, to tie any- 
thing to a post ; see also the end of Obs. l } § 107) ; but more commonly 
the simple verb is used in such cases ; as, tylau fjat 3U oiel aiif ben 2Ba? 
yen gefaben, they have loaded too much upon the waggon (though we 
should say, Sta &at &em X&ter gU vki aufgelaben, they have laden the 
beast too much ; the dative implying that the animal, as a sentient being, 

suffers from it); etn?a» tinter ben Sifc&, or vox ba» £aus, (egen, to lay 

anything under the table, or before the house. The learner must therefore 
not confound the two constructions, though they should both govern 
the same case. Thus, @r ffanb mtr fcer denotes, he assisted me; @r 
(ranb bei Wtr, he stood near me; 3$ Wartete ifcm auf, / waited upon 



318 SYNTAX. [§'124?. 

him; %d) wartete auf i&n, / waited for him ; einem nacbfaufen, to run 
after one (in order to overtake him) ; wa&i einem laufen, to run for a 
person. Usage, however, does not always observe this analogy, but re- 
quires sometimes a preposition in reference to persons, and sometimes 
vice versa, the mere dative in reference to things. Thus we say, fi'db 

l?ei einem einfcfcmeicfceln, to insinuate oneself with a person; con einem 

abfatlen (for einem abfatten, which is also used), to fall off {desert the 
party of) a person; etne©a#e bet* anbern POrj'tefjen, to prefer one thing 
to another. 

2. The following verbs, which do not belong to the pre- 
ceding rule, likewise govern the dative case : — 

a.) These intransitive verbs : — 
antif Otten, to answer. gefalfen, to please. 

begegnen, to meet. gefjorcfren, to obey. 

befjagen, to suit. geniigen, to suffice. 

batlfen, to thank. gl eleven, to resemble. 

btenen, to serve. yratuliren, to congratulate. 

brofjen, to threaten. foelfen, to help (with all its com- 

entfa&ren, to slip, or escape from. pounds, as, ab- auf= aus&effen). 

Also all other verbs in which en t ltUd)ttt\,to light, show or give light. 

denotesawayorfrom(seep.285). fdfrctben, to hurt. 

eittfagCIt, to renounce. fcfMieicfrefn, to flatter. 

eittfptecben, to answer, correspond. jtetietn, to stop, restrain. 

erliegen, or unterliegen, to sink trauen, to confide in, to trust. 

under, to succumb. frozen, to defy, dare. 

fe^en, to be wanting ; also to ail. Wefcren, to check, to prevent*. 
fludben, to curse. Wtberfprecften, to contradict. 

folgen, to follow. wibertre&en, to resist. 

frb(men, to be the drudge. ttHllfa&ren, to comply with. 

besides a number of other intransitives, which are also in English con- 
strued with to as the mark of the dative; as, fcfietnen, to appear (to 
one); fcufbigen, to do homage; nugen, frommen, or frucftten, to be of 

use ; Wetcften, to yield or give way ; rufen, to call to (in the sense of 
to call, to summon, which is its more common import, it governs the 
accusative); ttMtfen, to make a sign (to one), &c. 
b.) The following impersonals (compare § 88) : — 

(5$ flfonet ttl'lY, my mind forebodes, 1 have a presentiment ; e$ beliebt mir, 



* When joined with the accusative of the thing, it denotes to forbid ; SBet 
frttitt mir fcaS roefyren? who can forbid me that ? ©tcf) roefjren denotes, to defend, 
oneself. 



j 124.] THE DATIVE. 319 

/chose, I am pleased ; e* biinft mtr (or mki)), it seems to me; e5 efelt 

mir (or micb), I loath; e$ grauet mtr, I feel a dread, or horror; e$ ge&et 
mir (gut, or fcblecfrt), & go^ (we//, or bad) with me; e* fcbtf tnbeft mtr, 

I feel giddy ; e$ traumt mix, I dream; also e$ if? andeS tturb, referring 
to the feelings or sensations* (see the examples, p. 201). Further, the 
following verbs, which are used in the third person only : befcmmen, 
in the sense of to agree with ; freuor Men, to impend; gefritftren, ge^ 
XXitW, to be becoming; geltttgen, gerathen, glutfen, to succeed; and the 

opposite verbs, mifiiingen, mrfglifttett, fe&l fcblagen, to fail; gefcbefcen, 

to happen; mangeM, gefrrecfren, to be wanting, to need; oHtegen, to be 
incumbent; pafftn, to suit ; fi'gen, tfebett, or laffen, in the sense of fit- 
ting ; and wiberfa&ren, to befall; as, @5 gefrj^tebt mir Unrest, / am 
wronged; 3&W fW CSelb, he needs money; 2)a$ ftietb jre&et, or lafjr, 
ifrm gUt, the coat fits him well. 

Obs. 5. With the following verbs usage is not uniform regarding the 
personal object depending on them, which is found both in the dative 
and the accusative: — anfommen, in the sense of to befall: @5 fam 
jftm, or (less commonly, though more analogically — see the exception, 
p. S17) t&n, eine #ur#t an, fear came on him; anliegen, in the import 
of soliciting : @r lag mtr, or mid), an, he solicited me; gelten, to be in- 
tended for : ©em, or wen, gait biefer ©eufjer ? for whom was this sigh? 
In the sense of to be at stake, or to cost, it is mostly construed with the 
accusative only: (§5 gilt metn £eben, my life is at stake. Soften, to cost, 
ought always to take the person in the dative, according to the general 
rule : §a$ foftet mtr (better than mid), as it is sometimes found) eine 
jtletnigfett, this costs me a trifle. — £)ei£en, in the sense of to bid, and 
lebren, to teach, take the dative or the accusative of the person if at- 
tended by an accusative of the thing, but exclusively the accusative of 
the person if attended by an infinitive; as, ffier&tefj btr,or btd?f,biefe?? 
who bid you this? @r fehrte mtr, or micbt, btefe &Unfr, he taught me this 
art; @r te&rte mt# (not mtr) fdiretben, he taught me to write; 2Der 
htef? bid) fommen? who bid you to come? oerficijern, to assure, takes 



* We may here notice also the idiomatic expressions, Gr$ fet) bem (or beta 
fct>) roic it)m atll (or roode), be that as it may ; 20enn item fo tfl, if that is the case. 

f This accusative, for which the best authorities may be quoted, is disap- 
proved of by Adelung and other grammarians as being against analogy, 
which requires the person to be in the dative if joined with the accusative of 
the thing. But this apparent anomaly may be accounted for by supposing 
the accusative of the thing to be governed by some infinitive understood 
(in the first of these examples the infinitive tfyun, to do, in the second oerfWjen, 
to understand, or some other infinitive, might be supplied by the mind); espe- 
cially as verbs joined with an infinitive without the particle %\x (see § 81. Obs. 
2), have a tendency to this ellipsis.— See § 82, Obs. 3. 



320 SYNTAX. [J 124. 

either the person in the dative and the thing in the accusative, or, as 
stated, p. 312, the person in the accusative and the thing in the geni- 
tive : @r t»erfici?erte mir feme, or mid) feiner, $reunbfcbaft, he assured 

me of his friendship. Accordingly we may say indiscriminately, (5r V?\'-- 

ficberte mir, or mid), bag er mem $reunb fey, he assured me that he 

was my friend. In the first case (er DerficBerte mir), the clause, ba% 

er mein $reunb fep,is a circumlocution of the accusative (feme $reunfc; 
fdbaft), in the second of the genitive. When denoting to insure, it is 
always construed regularly, viz. the thing in the accusative, and the 
person, if there be one, in the dative : (einCttl) etn ©Cbijf t>erfld)ern,<o 
insure {one) a ship. 

3. The dative is frequently used where in English the 
genitive, or, which is the same, the possessive pronoun 
is used ; but only when the possessor is interested in the 
action or state, so that in fact there is at the same time a 
dative relation involved ; as, 

2)em SlafttHx if? ba$ £atl5 a&ge&ramU, the neighbour's house is burnt 
down; S>er©o&n iiegt mir franr, my son lies ill; but we say, @5 iinb 
tfiele ©ebaube a^ebrannt, unter anbern be5> 9?ad)bar£ $a\\$, many 

buildings are burnt, among others the neighbour's house : for here we do 
not refer, as in the first example, to the injury sustained, but want 
merely to point out the house. Take also these examples of the Ger- 
man dative answering to the English genitive : (?r pernunibete mir ben 

2Irm, he wounded my arm ; 9)?an fann ben i l euten nid)t rn$ $erj fe&en, 

one cannot look into the hearts of people ; (Jr I adfj> te lt)V tll$ (§ef?(1)t, 
he laughed in her face. To this rule belong also such expression? as 
Stir t&ette, at the side of; ju $U£en, at the feet of; gur red>ten (or jur 
Iinfen), to the right (or left) of; jjil 1)ienflen, at the service of; as, (gie 

ttanb tfrm gur ©eite (jur recbten #anb), she stood at his side (at Ms right 
hand) ; ^as tfe&et 3bnen %\\ 2)ienf?en, this is at your service. If trerben 
is construed with the dative of the person, there seems to be an ellipsis 
of 3u X&eil, to the share, or lot, of; W\x rourbe fein foicfc»e5 ©liitf (i. e. 
3U %i)(ll) i no such fortune fell to my lot. 

Obs. 6. As in English, the person may be in the accusative as the im- 
mediate object of the verb, and yet a part of it mentioned as the pecu- 
liar scene, as it were, of the action; as, @r rertr-tinbete mid? am 2(rm, 

he wounded me in the arm. If the noun denoting a part of the body, is 
in the accusative as the regimen of a preposition noting the aim or end 
of the action, the person may often, according to Adelung, indifferently be 
put in the dative, or in the accusative. 3)U tturf? i&m, or ifcn, in bk ^er- 
fen ftecben, thou shalt bruise his heel (lit. thou shalt sting him in the heel). 



§ 124.] THE DATIVE. 321 

Yet present usage is decidedly inclined to the accusative of the person 
in such cases : @r fcfrtUy fie ailf ben 3?UCr"en, he struck her on the back ; 
@te fobte t(jn in» ^ingeficbt, she praised him to his face. The question 
is however not yet finally decided among grammarians*. 

4. Adjectives that are predicated of a subject not in an 
absolute sense, but relatively, that is, only in relation to the 
feelings or capacity of a particular person, take that person 
in the dative. This rule comprehends a very large number 
of adjectives (see the next Obs.). Indeed all adjectives, 
when joined with the particles ^u, too, and gemi#, enough, 
may fall under this rule. 

Examples: Qat iff mir angenefcm (erfreultcfc, gletdbsulti^, ftfnrer, 

Unmb$lt#, beutltd), fcefartnt, nU^hcfr, &c), that is agreeable (rejoicing, 
indifferent, difficult, impossible, plain, known, useful, &c.) to me ; dv tfl 

t&r treu (erge&en, ge&orfam, oerwanbt, &c), he is faithful (attached, 

obedient, related, &c.) to her ; 2)a$ ijl mir JU weit (gU f)0#, JU ttfenig, 
&c), that is too far (too high, too little, &c.)for me ; Jff ^hnetl bie 2)inte 
fcbwarg geitllg ? is the ink black enough for you? 

Obs. 7. The class of adjectives belonging to the preceding rule is too 
extensive to be enumerated heref; but fortunately this is not neces- 
sary, as nearly all of them are also in English construed with the sign 
of the dative. Indeed, the dative they are joined with, can hardly be 



* Generally, when the prepositional phrase determines the end of the ac- 
tion as issuing immediately from the nominative, "the verb is intransitive, and 
cannot therefore govern an accusative. With transitive verbs the preposition 
notes either the scene of the action, and requires then the dative of its object 
(see the first example in the above Obs.), or, if it notes the end.it refers to the 
passive object. Thus, Qt fprnng in &<i$ 5CafTer, he jumped into the water ; (?r 
ftte|3 fie in i>([i 9Bnffer, he pushed her into the water : in the first example the 
prepositional phrase (in bc<$ 3Bnffer) points out the end of the agent's energy ; 
in the second this is done by the accusative of the verb (fie), whilst the end 
marked by the prepositional phrase refers to a later moment, to the effect on 
the object. So far usage is uniform : the question at issue here is, whether a 
transitive verb, having an accusative as the object of its aim, may yet be 
joined with a prepositional phrase to designate that aim more accurately; 
or, whether the marking of the same moment of the action by two different 
objects — that of the verb and the preposition- — is not analogous to a verb go- 
verning two accusatives, which is generally allowed to be against the genius 
of the German language. In the latter case, either the regimen of the verb 
or that of the preposition, ought to be in the dative case. 

f The long lists given of them by grammarians comprehend after all but 
\ minor part of them. 



322 SYNTAX. [§ 125. 

considered as their regimen ; for the usual relation of this case (con- 
cern or interest), denoted by it, is implied rather in the whole proposi- 
tion than in the mere adjective, as may be seen from the fact that sub- 
stantives too, when used in the same restrictive sense, are joined with 
the dative case. Thus we say, 2)a$ tfr mtr ettie ^tetniyfett, that is a 
trifle for vie ; 2>em Stonbalen.finb fie @tein,fo the Vandal they (the an- 
tique marbles) are but stone (Schiller). 

Obs. 8. In reference to things, these adjectives are construed with a 
preposition (compare Obs. 1); as, %a$ iff nu£lt# gU metner 3leiU, 
that is useful for my journey ; notfcwenbtg JU rtieiner 9t6fidbt, necessary 
for my intention ; ytlt CjetlUg flit* ben 2Bittter, good enough for the winter. 
Even when referring to persons they admit sometimes prepositions, espe- 
cially when joined with ^u, or yenilg. Thus we would indiscriminately 
say, 5>a£ jft ttlir, or fur mid), gU t&euer, that is too dear for me. Never- 
theless, on a closer examination it will often be found that the dative 
has reference to the will or liking of the person, whilst the preposition 
refers to fitness or necessity arising from external circumstances. So, 
for instance, $>ai Stl# iff i&m ntC&t fein genUy, the cloth is not fine 
enough for him, would generally mean that he dislikes the quality; but 
if I give it as my own opinion, viz. that I think the quality unfit for him, 
he having perhaps never seen it, I must say, 2>a* Xu# if? nicfrt fein 
semia fiir iim. 

USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 

$ 125. With regard to the use of this case we observe 
as follows : — 

1. All transitive verbs govern an accusative as the im- 
mediate object of the energy they denote (see p. 54-) ; 
as, einen 3)?enfcj>en fdblct#en (tte&en, fcaflen, &c), to strike 
(love, hate, &c.) a man ; einen 2?rief fcbrei6ctt, to write a 
letter* 

2. Reflective verbs take the accusative of the personal 
pronoun (see § 87), with the exception of the few mentioned, 
p. 199, as governing the dative. 

3. Most impersonal verbs that in English have the full 
conjugation, are joined with a noun or pronoun in the ac- 
cusative, answering to the English nominative; as, e$ JtflUI- 
fcert ttlicb, / wonder, — see § S8. Some govern the dative, for 
which see p. 318. 



§ 125.] THE ACCUSATIVE. 323 

4-. The accusative is used adverbially, to mark — 

a.) Time, for which see § 106, Obs. 

b.) The place along which any motion takes place ; as, 2>iefe ©tra£ e 

mu$ er fcmmen, this road he must come ; ©efre beine 2Bege, go your 

way. Generally some adverb of direction follows the accusative in 
such instances; as, ben 2?erg foiltauf, up the hill; ben $ltt£ fcinab, down 
the river. 

c.) The extent of space, or of time ; or the weight, or value ; as, eine 
5fteile OOn fjter, a mile from here; einige Xage Warten, to wait a few days ; 
^di Wiegt einen 3t > ntner, this weighs a hundred-weight. This accusative, 
too, is generally followed by some word (mostly an adjective) of a kin- 
dred import — i. e. referring to space, time, &c. ; einen $U$ breit, afoot 

broad; feinen ejcfcritt weiter, no step farther; einen 9J?onat alt, a 

month old; futt'f $funb f# tV C r, Jive pounds in weight; einen X&aUr 
Wertlj, worth a dollar. 

d.) The continuation of an action till a certain effect is produced ; 
as, f?# bie 'Hugen rotb ttu'tnen, to cry ones eyes red; fid) tobt lacfren, to 
laugh oneself to death. Of the same description is the accusative of 
many compound verbs; as, eine (ScftlUb abarbeiten, to work off a debt. — 
See j 90, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 1. As in other languages, neuter verbs are joined sometimes 
with a noun of a kindred import in the accusative, merely to qualify the 

action; as, einen ffjjrecf lichen Xobfrerben, to die a horrible death ; einen 

eitugen (Scfolaf fdfrlafen, to sleep an eternal sleep. In this construction, 
too, the accusative is of an adverbial nature. 

Obs. 2, The verbs fragen, to ask ; and bitten, to beg, take sometimes, 
beside the accusative of the person, the accusative of the neuter pro- 
nouns, etroa£, something; eine 6, one thing; e$,it; biefe£ or bci$, this: 
but only when these pronouns refer to some proposition ; as, @ine$ bitte 
idb bid?, one thing 1 beg you (namely that you should do so and so): 
91UV biefe5 milf? id) *3ie fragen, Ob, &c, only this I must ask you, whether, 
&c. But when the objects to which they relate are things, or pronouns 
referring to things, these verbs must be construed with um — fragen 
is in such cases moreover construed also with nacfr ; as, @r bat mid) um 
@elb, he begged money of me ; (5ie fcaben t<x mete ;8Uci)er, biirfte ic|? <5ie 

Uttl eine5 bitten ? you have here many books, might I beg one of you ? 

einen um .9vatt) (or nadb etroas) fragen, to ask a person for advice (or 

for something). See also § 122, Obs. 1, regarding the two accusatives of 
the verbs of naming — &ei£en, nennen, &c. — and § 124, Obs. 5, regarding 

■fceiflen, to bid; (e&ren, &c. 

Obs. 3. We add the following remarks : 1.) The regimen of an infi- 
nitive must not be confounded with that of the principal verb on which 
that infinitive depends. Thus ijllf i&n fttcfren means, help to seek him, 



324 SYNTAX. [§ 126. 

the accusative i&lt depending on fiKben, for frelfeit governs the dative 
only; but ^)ttf t^m fucfren denotes, help him to seek. So also, dr lic£ 
mtr ffl#en, he sent me word — lit. he caused (somebody) to tell me ; but 
we say, @r lief mt# fagen wa§ t# vrotlte, A<? allowed me to say ivhat J 
pleased. 2.) In descriptions of subjects nouns are frequently put in the 
accusative case, instead of being construed with mit, with ; as, 2)fl. 

fommter, ben ©totf in ber^anb, ben^antelfatf auf bem^iitfen, there 

he comes, the stick in his hand, the portmanteau on his back. 



USE OF THE VERB. 

§ 126. The different kinds of verbs have been sufficiently 
explained in the preceding part (§§ 79, 80, 87, and 88). We 
have, however, to add here a few remarks regarding the 
passive voice : — 

When a transitive action is expressed passively, the ob- 
ject of the action, i. e. the accusative of the active voice, is 
put in the nominative, and the agent, the nominative of the 
former, is construed with t?on (rarely with fcttfdb — compare 
§ 105. Obs. 7). The other oblique cases (genitive and da- 
tive), as well as the regimen of prepositions, remain un- 
altered in the passive voice ; as, gr fcfcitf te mit biefcn 2>rief, 
he sent me this letter ; Siefet $rief ttwrbe mtr von i&m #e= 
fcfrtcft, this letter was sent me by him. — See also the two last 
examples of Obs. 1, § 122, and that quoted p. 312, ®r ttMfbe 
feiw£ <£ibd, &c. 

It will therefore be readily perceived, that such English passives as, 
" I was told," " We were given to understand," " She was recommended 
to use baths," " You were spoken of," "The man was sent for," must 
be differently rendered in German, since the nominatives of the three 
first passive verbs are in the active voice in the dative (" they told [to] 
me,"&c), and those of the two last, the regimens of prepositions (" they 
spoke of you," &c). Generally, such passives are rendered in German 
either actively with the indefinite pronoun man, one } for their subject, 
or by the impersonal form of the passive. Thus the above expressions 
may be translated, Wan fagte mtr, or e$ wurbe mtr aefagt; ®lan &ab 
tin* 3ti oerffe&en, or e$ rcurbe un$ ju oerjre&en gegeben ,• Wlan fpracfc 
oon 3&nen, or e$ wurbe t>on 3&nen gefprocfcen, &c. 

The same, of course, applies to all verbs governing only the dative 
case (§ 124), though in English they appear to be transitive; and such 



§ 127.] PERSON AND NUMBER. 325 

passives therefore as " He was thanked, flattered, threatened," &c.,must 
be rendered in the above manner, (53 ttmrbe i&mgebanft, $ef#metchelt*, 
gebrofcet; or, man banfte i&m &c 

Obs. We add the following remarks: — 1.) The transitive verbs noti- 
ced § 81, Obs. 2, as being joined with infinitives without the particle 
gU, do not admit the passive voice in that construction,- and we can- 
not say, @r wuxbe bleiben ye(jet£en, he was bid to stay; @ie ttmrbe 

fommen yefcften, or gefriJrt, she was seen, or heard, coming ; though we 

say, 3)?an fcie£ ifyn bleiben; 9)?an fafj, or fc'orte, fie fommen ; and with- 
out an infinitive, ©tC tf urbe gefefren, or gef)drt, ^ was seen, or heard. 2.) 
When verbs are construed in the active voice with pon, ambiguity may 
sometimes arise in the passive voice, concerning the import of this pre- 
position. Thus,@ine bebeutenbe@ummett?urbe pen t&m bafiir oerlanjjt, 

might mean, a considerable sum was demanded of him, or, by him. for it ; 
the former corresponding to man Derlangte con ifcm eine &c, the lat- 
ter, to er oerlangte eine &c. Generally however, the real sense is easily 
ascertained from the context. 

That the simple infinitive is often used passively after certain verbs, 
has been noticed § 91, Obs. 3. — See also § 79, Obs. 2, concerning the 
English participle in ing used passively. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

§ 127. The verb must, as in other languages, agree with 
its subject in person and number, as has been shown §§ 70 
and 72. We add here the following rules : 

1. A relative pronoun is always considered as the third person, and 
therefore as subject requires the third person of the verb, even when 
referring to the first or second: ©laube mir, ber manure taufenb %abve 

an biefer batten ©petfe faut, believe me, who have been chewing (lit. who 
chews) these many thousand years on this hard food (Goethe). But in 
order to avoid this disagreement of import and form, we generally 
in the latter case repeat the personal pronoun after the relative, and 
make the verb agree with it ; as, 3$, ber id) tfjn beffer f enne (for irjj, ber 
i&n beiTer fennt,) 1, who know him better ; 2>ater unfer, ber bw b\\l im 

.ytmmel, Our Father which art in heaven. 

2. As in English, if the nominatives to the same verb are of dif- 
ferent persons, the first person is preferred to the second, and the se- 
cond to the third; as, 3)?eine (Sdjroefter unb i# beft'nben un* (not jicb) 
wo&l, my sister and I are well; 2)u unb bettt 25ruber mcgct frier bleiben 

* Such expressions therefore as, 5tf) finite mid) <jefcf>metdje(t, I fell myself 
flattered; 2)n$ ^ortrntt ift gefd)meid)ett, the portrait is flattered, seem to be 
against all analogy, though they are often met with in good authors. 

2 F 



326 SYNTAX. [§ 127. 

Unb eiicfe UntCr^altCtl, thou and thy brother may stay and amuse your- 
selves ; 2>U Unb ttfy fi'nb betbe etllyelaben, ^ow and I are both invited. Ge- 
nerally, however, the pronoun wit, or tfrr, is in such cases repeated 
before the verb ; as, 2)U 1Mb i#, WW ftnb betbe CHIyClaben; 2)U imb 

betn iSrubev, ibx midget &c. 

3. In addressing a person by his title, the verb is often, as a mark of 
respect, put in the third person plural ; as, (?uere (^Ccttenj baben bcfcb- 
ICH, &c, Your Excellency has commanded, 8fc; 2>CV £>et*r general frfltten 
bti @UtC, &c, Fow ^ae? the goodness, General. That the English you 
may Be rendered by @te, %fyv, and (5r, the verb agreeing with its respec- 
tive pronoun, has been already noticed (§ 59, Obs. 2). 

4. Two or more nouns in the singular forming together the nomina- 
tive to the verb, generally require a plural verb: £Kcicbt6tim unb 
(5rb£e ma#etl nidn immet glUcnidfr, riches and greatness do not 
always make happy. However, the singular is not unfrequently used, if 
the predicate is applicable to each of the nominatives severally: 2>ein 
if? ba§ $ei#, unb bie £raft, unb bit ^ertltrbfett, Thine is the kingdom, 

and the power, and the glory ; (5tne5 liur if? mtr frefamU, \va» $Urf? 
Unb Settler f?C& triinfc^t, one thing I know only, that the prince and the 
beggar (equally) wish for. Jf, however, the predicate applies to the 
nominatives conjointly, the singular verb is inadmissible : Qv unb fit 
ftnb cereint, he and she are united; 2)er englifdije unb frangbfifcfoe 

£bnig fyahtn ^Vteben gemac^t, the English and French kings have made 
peace. In arithmetic, numerals often take a singular verb: 2)rei Xinb 
Vkt mad)t (or ij?) fieben, three and four make seven; %Wi\ mal gwei if? 
Dier, fow'c<? two are four. 

5. A collective noun in the singular requires, as subject of the verb, 
the latter to be in the singular number : ^ie .[Kegteruny fmt frefcblofjen, 
&c, Government has resolved, 8fc. ; 2>ie 9}Jenge wtif} nid)t ttttttiev tt>a$ 
fit Wltl, the multitude do not always know what they want. However, 
some of the nouns noticed § 123, Obs. 3, may take the verb in the 
plural, if the noun with which they are joined is of that number ; as, 

@tne ^ftenge 3)tenfdben fa&en (for fafy) e$, a multitude of people saw 

it. The same applies to Ctne ^n^f, a number of; etn ©c&Wflrm, a 
swarm; ein ^>Ugenb, a dozen; ein %aax, a pair, a couple ; etn £aufen, 
a crowd, a heap ; and a few other nouns of this nature. — 3?temanb, 
nobody, and feinet*, none {not one), always require a singular verb: 

Reiner con tfmen roetf? e$, none of them know it. 

Obs. 1. With verbs admitting of two nominatives it is not always 
easy to ascertain which is the subject, with which the verb ought to 
agree, and which the predicate. Thus in the next examples, the sub- 
ject in German is the personal pronoun, and in English it is the 
demonstrative. It may therefore be useful to observe, that if any 
of the neuter pronouns, e*>, it ba$ } thai ; btefeS, this; and affe#, ail; 



§ 128.] USE OF THE TENSES. 327 

form one of the two nominatives, the verb must agree with the other : 
as, @tnb @ie bd§? is that you? 2)iefe» finb gUte 9?ad(mcbten, these are 
good news ; %{\t$ Uebrtge finb Um»a(jrfjeiten, all the other things are 
untruths. — See also § 59, Obs. 3, and § 64, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 2. The nominative to the verb cannot well be omitted, except 
with some impersonal verbs (see § 88, Obs. 3), and in the imperative 
(see § 131) : yet in colloquial language we frequently say,as in English, 
fcttte, pray ; bnnfe, thank (you), for tch" 6ttte, icfc banfe. In popular 
language, and in composition imitating that style (as in the drama, 
or in ballads), all the pronominal nominatives of the verb are often 

omitted; 2£trb fie aucb fc&on wteber fo betulavm madden aU er fetbj? 

if?, (he) will no doubt make her again as beggarly poor as he is himself 
{Lessing); sHJiffff fXUte ttCtf) &c.,(thou) will to-day yet $c. (Burger).— On. 
the other hand, the subject of the verb is sometimes, for emphasis' sake, 
expressed both by a noun, and its representative, the pronoun j as, 
StefeS Ceben, acb ! rote furg if? e$, *Aw &/<?, ah! how short it is. See also 
the example quoted note (*), p. 68 f. 

USE OF THE TENSES. 
§. 128. We have to consider here, 1st, the tenses of the 
indicative; 2ndly, those of the subjunctive; and lastly, 
those of the potential auxiliaries; but only in those points 
in which they differ from the English. The difference in 
the respective tenses of the passive auxiliaries fcpn and 
IWrbCttj with regard to the time of the action, has been 
fully explained, § 79. The tenses of the infinitive mOod 
are used nearly as in English. 

Obs. 1. The principle in both languages is, that the present infinitive 
expresses an action contemporary with, or future to, that of the go- 
verning verb, the past infinitive one anterior to it; the tense of the 
governing verb making no difference in the rule; as, (5r pevfpvtcfyt (or 
perfpracb) mtr balb JU femmen, he promises (or promised) me to come 

soon; Q.i iit (or war) mir lieb, fetne 2?efanntfcbaft gemacln gu fyaben, 

I am (or was) glad to have made his acquaintance ; (5$ fcfrttierget fie, DOlt 
3&nen mt^erjlanben \U roerben, it grieves her to be misunderstood by 
you. In German this rule is always strictly observed; and the past 
infinitives in such expressions as, " We hoped to have seen you" " I 



f In the oblique cases, too, the pronoun is sometimes used emphatically 
in this way ; as, a6) ! (nfj fie rufyeit, oie £obten, ah ! let the dead rest (Biirger). 
The pronoun in such cases is analogous to eS in the sense of there (§ 88, Obs. 
4); its purpose being to draw more attention to the noun. 

2 f2 



328 SYNTAX. [§ 128. 

wanted to have spoken with him" which are deviations from this rule, 
must therefore be rendered by present infinitives (feften, fptedKn). 

I. The tenses of the indicative being used nearly in 
the same manner as in English (see § 69), we shall notice 
only those cases in which the two languages differ in their 
use : — 

1. When an action or state begun before the present time, continues 
at the present moment, the present tense must be used in German ; as, 

3'$ fcnne biefen ffiann fett langer 3 e ' f > I have known this man for a 

long time ; 2Bte lailge ftttb @te in dnglanb? how long have you been in 

England? 935 te lange finb @ie m<Snglanb gercefen? would mean, how 

long were you in England? See also the first example in § 127. 

2. The present implying more, of certainty, and the future more of 
contingency, the former is often used in reference to future time, when 
we speak with full confidence of the occurrence, and the latter in refe- 
rence to present time, to imply mere supposition. This use of the tenses 
in question is not foreign to the English idiom, but is not so extensive 
as in German, as may be seen from these examples : 2Btr retfen mcrgen 
afj, we depart tomorrow ; Qa$ t&Ut £r gettuf? tttcftt, that he will certainly 
not do; @f Wixb e£ jegt fcbOll Wifjen, he will know it by this time ; @r 

wixb rooftl Uant fepn, he is ill, I dare say; @r with wool @elb von mir 

6orgen WOflen, / dare say he wants (literally, he will ivant) to borrow 
money of me. In interrogative sentences the imperfect subjunctive of 
fctteil * is used with a similar import, implying however a still greater 
degree of uncertainty : ©Oflfte er Wptyt fvant" fepn ? is he ill perhaps? 

3. We have noticed before (see Obs. p. 152.), that a single past 
event, unconnected with other past actions, is in German gene- 
rally put in -the perfect, whilst in English the imperfect is used j and 
that a succession of past events, in lively narration, is often expressed 
in the present instead of the imperfect tenses. The latter is sometimes 
done in English also, though far less frequently. We subjoin a few exam- 
ples : 3$ &a&e coriye 2BocJ?e an 3&ren 25ruber gefcnrieben, / wrote last 

week to your brother; @3 hat gef?CW ben gan^en Xag geregltet, it rained 
all day yesterday ; £jaben ©te meinen 29rief er^alteil ? did you receive 

my utter?— Wte$ roar fMe, ba nbre ten iemanb flopfen, icf) ffefje 

auf, bffne bte XoUt, &c, everything was silent, when I heard somebody 
knocking, I rose, opened the door, fyc. Schiller, in his Ballads often uses 
the present time almost throughout a whole tale, and sometimes alter- 
nating it with the imperfect. 

* In Old German fotien was employed as an auxiliary of the future tense 
(see Dr. Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, 4 vol.), as it still is in all the other 
Teutonic languages : in the above and similar propositions, it seems to have 
still something of that office ; see also the 4th import of foUen, p. 179. 



§ 128.] TENSES OF INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. 329 

4. If a verb dependent on another verb denotes an action, or state, 
not limited by the present time, it is in the present tense, though the 
leading verb should be in a past tense; as, (?r ttMj^te ntcfrt, £>a§ ©!C 
ailf bem S3an£>e Ubcn, he did not hnoio thai you lived in the country; 

HBaxum fasten ©ie tbm ntdbt, ba$ t# 3& r 29ruber &in ? «% did you woi 

fe# him that I was your brother ? 

Obs. 2. This is the case also with conditional clauses, where the im- 
perfect subj. (which, as remarked § 68, Obs. 1, implies present time) 
is used to designate a permanent state, though it be joined with a plu- 
perfect tense : ^ltk$ ware yut gegangen, roenn ev nidtt fcfrwacfc ware, 

everything would Jiave succeeded, if he had not been weak, i. e. a weak 
man ; glWCffll Witt, would imply weakness on that particular occasion. 

II. The tenses of the subjunctive. — If we look to 
the form of the two classes of tenses exhibited in the table, 
p. 169, we shall find that in all the four tenses of the first 
class, the finite or inflected verb (/. e> the principal verb in 
simple, and the auxiliary in compound, tenses) is in the pre- 
sent tense, and in those of the second class or of imaginary 
events, it is in the corresponding imperfect tense, the two 
conditional tenses answering in form to the two respective 
futures, — itwbe being the imperfect of Werbe, as (jatte is that 
of (;a6e. We may therefore call the four tenses of the first 
class present^ and the other four imperfect tenses of the 
subjunctive. 

It has already been noticed (§ 78), that the first of these 
two classes is used chiefly in reporting, or, more accurately 
speaking, in objective clauses, i. e. in such as form the ob- 
ject of a preceding verb or verbal noun, and that the pecu- 
liar use of the second class or imperfect tenses, is for ima- 
ginary events, that is, such as are conceived by the mind 
in opposition to reality or probability, and which are mostly 
of a conditional nature. These imperfect tenses how- 
ever are used also in objective clauses, supplying the place 
of their corresponding present tenses*, though not vice 

* Looking to analogy alone, the same distinction of the two sets of tenses 
that is made when used optatively (see Obs. 4), ought to be observed in ob- 
jective clauses, viz. the present tenses should be used when mere uncertainty 
of the allegation is implied ; the imperfect tenses, on the contrary, when the 

2 F 3 



330 SYNTAX. [§ 128. 

versa, the present tenses being never employed in condi- 
tional clauses of the above description. 

The following are examples: @r fagt, et feu (or Ware) fe^r DeryllUyt, 

er babe (or fiatte) eine grof e ©umrne ®elb r,en feinem 2?ater erfcaiten, 

Ullb trerbe (or wiirbe) balb abretfen, fo sa^s he is very happy, that he 
has received a large sum of money from his father, and that he will soon 

depart ; 3d) fcoffe, baft ber 29rtef gefdjrieben fepn werbe, wenn id) 

JtirUtf fcmmC, I hope the letter will be written when I come back ; Xfl? 
©eriicfrt iff, baft ber $etnb gefcblaaen fep, £&? report is that the enemy is 

beaten; %db wiirbe jufrieben fepn (or, id) ware jufrieben, see p. 170), 
raenn id) gefunb ware, unb arbeiten fonnte, I should be satisfied, if 1 

were in good health, and could work ; 2Bare er JU #ailfe gewefett, fo 

batte er e» ntc&t gelitten, or, fo wiirbe er e3 nicbt gelttten fraben, had he 

been at home, he would not have suffered it ; 2Ba5 Ware id) C^JllC ibtl ? 
w/Afltf should I be without him f 

Obs. 3. In expressing imaginary events, the two languages, as may he 
seen from the examples just quoted, agree in the use of the tenses 
But with regard to objective clauses, they follow different principles : 
for whilst in English the dependent verb must agree in tense with 
the leading verb, thus, mediately, depending on the moment of speak- 
ing, its tense in German is independent of that moment, and is regulated 
by the time referred toby the leading verb; that, is, the dependent verb 
is in the present, perfect, or future tense, according as the event de- 
noted by it is contemporary with, anterior, or posterior to, that of the 
leading verb. Thus if the leading verb, of the first example quoted 
above (er fagt) were in any other tense, it would not alter that of the 
dependent verbs, as long as they imply the same relative time to the 

action of saying; as, (5r fagte, or, er fratte eft gefagt, bag er oergniigt 

fep, &c, he said, or, he had often said, that he was happy, fyc. — Only, with 
the future tense of dependent verbs the present time, i. e. the moment 
of speaking, appears to have some influence; for when the contingency 
expressed by the future subjunctive has ceased at that moment, Wiirbe 
would more generally be used than werbe. Thus, for instance, ©eftem 

batten mix no# £Joffnung, baft ber £ranfe genefen wiirbe, yesterday 

we had still hopes that the patient would recover ; as this implies that 

these hopes have now vanished, Werbe would not be so readily used. 

Obs. 4. From what has been observed here, and from § ISO, it will be 

speaker has reason to doubt it, or to know the contrary. In some instances, 
indeed, usage seems to comply with this distinction. Thus one would say, 
€5inb ©ie e£? id) gfnufcte e£ matt (hardly fet)) raetn ©ruber, is it you? I thought it 
was my brother. So also when a future tense expresses an event past at the 
moment of speaking, and therefore no more uncertain, where voiilbe is moie 
commonly employed than roert*.— See the end of Obs. 3. 



§ 128.] TENSES OF POTENTIAL AUXILIARIES. 331 

perceived, that the characteristic of thepresent tenses of the subjunctive 
is uncertainty of the speaker whether what the verb expresses will prove 
true, whilst that of the imperfect tenses, where they are used exclusively, 
is certainty that what is stated is not true, or, at least, not probable. This 
distinction is strikingly corroborated when the subjunctive mood is used 
optatively ; for then in both languages the imperfect tenses are invariably 
used in wishing anything impossible, or improbable, whilst the present 
tenses are employed for such wishes as may be fulfilled, or where the 
chances are even ; as, 2Pottte @0tt, ba$ e$ anbevs if are ! would to God 
it were otherwise/ $atte id) bod) gefcftwicgen ! had I been but silent/ 

& N ame er bocb (jeute nodi, if he would but come to day ; ©ebe (Sott, ba$ 

e$ ttXlfcr fry, heaven grant that it be true; 3$ Wiinftfje, ba$ et balb 
9<?neKn U10$C, / wish he may soon recover ; the imperfect (tnbcbt?) would 
imply that there is not much hope for it. 

III. The tenses of the potential auxiliaries (§81) 
are used in the same manner as those, of other verbs, and 
the preceding rules on the tenses both of the indicative 
and subjunctive moods, apply equally to them ; since their 
import (of power, will, or obligation) may be represented 
either as an assertion of the speaker, or as the object of 
another verb, or as a mere hypothesis ; as, 
@t fann un$ &elfen, he can help us; @r fagt, ev fbnne* tm» freffen, he 
says he can help us ; ©ettern fcnnte er un$ nicbt frelfen, fceute fonnte er 

ti, WetinerWOttte, yesterday he could not help us, today he coidd if he 
would. The compound tenses as well as the infinitive mood of these 
auxiliaries, with the exception of those of (a|Ten\ to let, must in English 
be rendered by some equivalent (see however the next observations) ; 
as, 2Denn ic& gewcflt b'dttt,if I had liked; ©ie roerben afcretfen milffert, 
you will be obliged to depart; ba$ $ergnugen 3&nen fcelfen $u fo'nnen, 

the pleasure of being able to help you. — See also the examples in § 81, 
Obs. 2. 

Obs. 5. In English, owing to this want of the compound tenses, by 
which alone a past event can be expressed subjunctively (for the im- 
perfect subjunctive implies present or future, but no past time, see § 
78), recourse is had to the past infinitive of the governed verb, to ex- 
press subjunctively the past tense of the governing auxiliary verb, (i. e. 

* If the leading verb implies an order, or solicitude, the imperfect of these 
auxiliaries is more usual than their present tense, especially that of mogen : 
©age ir>tn, er morijte, or foHte, \<x ba\t> fommen, tell him to be sure to come early ; 
€>ie fiircfytet er mocfyte, or fftnnte, fie uertatfyen fya6en, she is afraid he may have 
betrayed her. 



332 SYNTAX. [§ 128. 

past obligation, liberty, &c.) instead of completed action, which is its 
proper import. Thus " you ought to have told me that yesterday," 
implies an obligation in past time regarding an action not completed at 
the time referred to : so also " if I could have seen him," is the same 
as " if I had been able to see him." To express this sense in German, 
the pluperfect subjunctive of the auxiliary is joined with the present 
infinitive. Thus the two preceding examples are rendered, <5i$ fatten 

rmr ba$ geitern fagen fetten; UBenn id? tfjn 6atte fehen fonnen*: which 

indeed is the usual way of all verbs to express past time subjunctively 
(§ 78). It may therefore be laid down as a rule, that in German the 
preceding construction is always used when the English past infinitive, 
depending on an auxiliary, does not imply completed action, so that it 
would be changed into the present infinitive, if the auxiliary referred 
to present time. Thus the preceding examples in this case would be, 
**you ought to tell me that," " if I could see him." But if the past 
infinitive denotes completed action, so that it would remain unchanged 
to whatever time its governing auxiliary might refer, the same construc- 
tion is used in German as in English ; as, You ought to have finished that 
already, iSie foffttn fra3 fcfjCn geenDiijt (jah'tt ; At ten o clock we must 

have left the town, urn fle&n Ufn* mirffen vrir bie ©ta&t fcbon rerlaflen 

fraben ; He could not then have received our letter, kX fctltltc bamal5 tin: 

fern 25rief nocfj ntdn empfangen bafren ; / might have slept an hour, 
when I awoke, tcb mocftte cine (Stunbe gefcblafen ftabert, al$ icb evwacbtt. 
— See also Obs. 6. 

Obs. 6. The potential auxiliaries are frequently used in an impersonai 
sense without an impersonal form; as, " he "must f be ill," means "it 
must be that he is ill," different from " he mustf depart," which means 
"he is obliged to depart." If an auxiliary with such an impersonal 
import is joined with a past infinitive in English, the latter generally 
denotes completed action, and therefore the same construction is used 
in German ; as, He must f have departed {i. e. it mustf be that he has 



* In old German the same construction was used as in English (see 
Grimm's Grammatik, vol. 4) ; and even now it is not quite out of use. 
Thus the last example but one might, according to Adelung (see fotlen in his 
Dictionary^, also he rendered, @ie foliten nm ba$ flefrern gefngt I)a6en; yet the 
more general usage is as stated above. — See also Obs. 6. 

f In all these examples the English must is in the present tense, and must 
be expressed by the same tense in German : but in such instances as the fol- 
lowing it is an imperfect, and must be translated accordingly. He must be 
mad, if he did it ; et mufjte umiicft fcnn, menu et t$ tf>dtc ; I must have sold my 
house, if he had not lent me money, id) fycitte mein £<tuS uerfnufen miiffen, roenn 
et mtr fcin ®etb gelierjen fyritte; I knew he must be at home, id) tuu^te, ba$ et }u 
£nufe fcpn mu£te. It is then from the context that the tense of must is known. 
Ought is always the imperfect subjunctive, being equivalent to should. Re- 
garding the imperfects, should and would, see § 82, Obs. 5. 



§ 128.] TENSES OF POTENTIAL AUXILIARIES. 333 

departed), er mu§ abgeretfet fepn, different from er bat atreifen miifTen, 

he was obliged to depart. Thus also, ©ottte ft* C5 3fWen tl t d? t Mfa»t 
fraben? means, would he not have (?'. e. can it be that he has not) 

told it you? ij'dtte er e£ 3&nen nk^r fagen foOten ? denotes, ought he not 
to have told it you? @ie flircbtete er fonnte fie perrat&en baben, she 

was afraid he might have (i. e. it might be, that he had) betrayed her ; 

@r batte lie perratben fonncn, roenn er g^woflt ha'tte, A* wigto Aaw fo- 

trayed her if he had liked. We may observe also that the compound 
tenses of these auxiliaries are never used in the impersonal sense noticed 
here, but the imperfect is not unfrequently used so : see the preceding 

examples. Thus also, (Sr medbte ungefabr breifng ^a&re alt fepn*, he 

might have been* thirty years old. 

Obs. 7. ©Often joined with a past infinitive has several idiomatic 
significations, denoting 1.) The intention of the speaker with regard to 
what he has just said or done ; as, 3$ if tft ibn ntc!)t gefcbjmpft fyabtn, 
I did not intend (by what I said) to abusehim ; 3$ null 3& nen ba$ 2?lldh 
gefdienft baben, I wish you to accept (or, to consider) the book as a pre- 
sent. 2.) An indirect command, as in English : 3$ tfiCt ntdbt? bdVCtl 
D£lTat6en baben f, 2" will have nothing betrayed of it. In this sense ittiffctl 

is often used, instead of baben : @r tvitt Die ©acbe abgetban wiffen, £<? 

wants to have (lit. /o know) the affair settled. 3.) !To allow, not dispu- 
ting: 3$ Witt e5 gefagt fjaben, / «w7/ allow, or granf, 7 ^«w said so. 4.) 
Pretence, which import however it may have also when joined with a 
present infinitive. — See p. 178. 

Obs. 8. In conclusion we must notice the practice of often omitting 
fjabett and feptl, when they are auxiliaries of past tenses. This ellipsis, 
which is very common in poets, and not unusual even in prose, can 
take place only in subordinate and relative clauses,— that is, in such 
where the finite verb is placed at the end, in consequence of its being 
deprived of assertion (see § 89, Obs. 3, and § 108). 3$ VCtlOY ntctyt 

atfe?\ ba folcber $reunb im Ungliitf mir geblteben (supply iff), I did not 

lose everything, as such a friend is left me in my misfortune {Schiller) ; 

3?adfrbem er etneigtunbe auSgerubet (jwtte) gtng er roieber an bte Arbeit, 

after having rested an hour, he went to his work again ; @tn SDieitfdb, bCV 



* The difference of the idioms of the two languages with regard to the 
tenses of the inrinitive in this and similar instances, arises perhaps from the 
English imperfect in such instances being used subjuvctively, that is, in refe- 
rence to present time, at which time the state expressed by the above infinitive 
is past, whilst the German imperfect indicative can refer only to past time, 
and is therefore contemporary with the infinitive. 

f In this sense, fynfcen is perhaps no auxiliary, but denotes possession, or ob- 
'aining; just as one says, @r roiU alleS nad) fetnem SKJiUcn fyaben, he wants tn 
iave (or, to carry) everything after his own will : so that its conjunction with the 
jarticiple forms no past infinitive in such instances. 



334 SYNTAX. [§ 130. 

fO fattye CiCHttCll (fyat), bentt immcr, baQ&c^aman, who has suffered so 
long, always thinks that 8cc. — See also § 132, Obs. 1. 

USE OF THE MOODS. 

§ 129. The indicative is the chief mood employed 
in communicating our perceptions, and expressing our 
thoughts to others ; and in this mood all direct affirmations 
and interrogations are expressed. It is however used also 
in many dependent clauses or indirect propositions (as will 
be seen from the following section), and even in hypothetical 
propositions when implying a possible case : see § 68, Obs. 1. 

USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

§ 130. From the explanation of the two leading rules 
of the subjunctive, given § 68, it will be seen that in an ob- 
jective proposition or clause, this mood implies uncertainty 
and absence of all affirmation, with regard to the speaker, 
respecting the truth of the allegation. Accordingly, such 
objective propositions as are set forth as undoubted facts 
require the verb to be in the indicative; as, 
©agen 6ie if>m, bafi id) mix \§m sufrieben fcin, tell Mm that I am 
satisfied with Mm ; £abe W* nicbt inimer gefagt, bafi er ein e&rttcbe.r 

3Kanil iff? did I not always say that he was an honest man? @5 iff ge= 
Wife ba$ er fie frdvat&en Wixb, it is certain that he will marry her. 

The subjunctive is therefore not used: 

1.) In objective clauses depending on such verbs as, wiffen, to know ; 

etfdfyxen, to learn; fe&en, tfo *?<?; entbecfen, to discover; Uberjeugen,^ 

convince; erweifen, to prove, and other verbs precluding the idea of 
uncertainty, unless they are themselves in the subjunctive, by which a 
degree of uncertainty may be imparted to the dependent verb. Thus 
we say, 3$ weif?, or, iti) bin iifrer$eugt, ba$ ba$ noniwenbig iff, I know, 

or, / am convinced, that this is necessary ; but we should say, ^tifite t$, 

or, ware left Uber^eugt, ba$ bat notfrwenbig fen, if I knew, or, were I I 
convinced, that this was necessary. We may however observe, that if 
the dependent verb represents an event as future to the leading verb, 
but as past at the moment of speaking, it is in the subjunctive, even 
when its leading verb implies no uncertainty ; as, @ie War bamals fcfoon 
iiberjeuyt, ba£ er fern 2Dert nicbt fralten wiirbe, she ivas then already con. 
vinced that he woiddnot keep his promise. 2.) With relative, or subordinate 



§ 130.] USE OF THE MOODS. — THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 335 

clauses (§ 108), expressive of a known fact, though the verb of the clause 
which they may restrict or modify be in the subjunctive ; as, (?r fa^t, 
CY DtTfptde ba5(Selb,lWlfiK$ fein $atCV if)m fcfenft, he says he gambles 
away the money which his father gives him ; 5)?ai1 bcl)aiiptet, ev fCp feftr 
arm, ObfdbOll ev t>tel ©Clb Cevbient, it is asserted, that he is very poor, 
although he earns a great deal of money. In these two examples, whilst the 
circumstances of his gambling and of his being poor, are given as objects 
of another's assertion, the giving and earning of money are, from their 
respective verbs being in the indicative, represented as known facts; 
the subjunctive (fcfretlfe, DCVbiCMC) would represent them equally as 
mere matter of another's assertion. However, when no ambiguity can 
arise, this rule is frequently violated, even by good authors : (Sir frrtt 

mich* rerftcfcevt, baf? er me&r 2?iicber gelefen featre, al$ (Stunben tin 

'jafyte W'dttn (for fiilb), he assured me, he had read more books than there 
are hours in the year {Gellert). 

Obs. 1. Whilst usage is uniform with regard to conditional proposi- 
tions, the principle laid down § 68 prevailing universally, it is far from 
being so with respect to objective clauses, in which indeed it is often 
optional to use the indicative or subjunctive. For the latter mood in 
such clauses generally carries with it a kind of guardedness on the side 
of the speaker, not to be answerable for the correctness of his informa- 
tion ; which precaution may often be disregarded, or thought unneces- 
sary and useless. Thus we may indifferently say, d)hit\ $reunb fcforfifct 
mir, ba$ er balb abretfen tturb, or, trerbe, my friend writes me that he 

will soon depart ; Wan yiaubt, baf? |?C fefjr retch" iff, or, fep, it is thought 
that she is very rich. In indirect questions, too, either mood may be 

used: £rage t&n wa$ er wofle, or, wiOf,unb wo er aewefen fep, or, \$,ask 

him what he wants, and where he has been. On the other hand, the sub* 
junctive mood is frequently used in speaking of our own former asser- 
tions, their truth or untruth being left out of view at the moment of 
narrating them j as, 3$ fagte t&m, ba$ nod? nicfcts cerloren ware, baj? 

UOCfr Vliemanb etWaS bafOtl ifil^te, &c, / told him that as yet there was 
nothing lost, that nobody knew yet anything of it, fyc. ; though the indica- 
tive must be used if such assertions are in the present tense : 3$ ftfy£ 

3&n.en, ba$ noc& ntdnS oerlcren if, &c 

The subjunctive mood is further used : 

1.) Optatively: for which see § 128 Obs. 4. 
2.) Exhortatively or imperatively : see § 131. 

S.) Potentially, but chiefly instead of the indicative of mogen, may, 
when implying a negation of influence on the action expressed by the 

^ther verb; as, Ca£ ntemanben fjeretn, tt>er er aim? fep (or, ftyn may), 

'et nobody come in, whoever he may be; 'Sftan fflge (or, mart, fagen), tt>a£ 



336 SYNTAX. [§ 130. 

man if ttf, e£ b(et()t bod) Wafer, one may say what one likes, it is nevertheless 

true ; (Sr fep &ofe ober nicbt, id) werbe e? nicbt $*!»>& Aw 5<? ««gn/ or 
not, I shall notdo it ; (Sic f£mteit.ba$ nicbr erflaren, fo gtlefrrt eie aucfe 

fepen, 3/0M cannot explain that, however learned you may be; fo gelefett 
@ie a il ct) |7nb would mean, learned as you arc. The imperfect UlCCbte 
is not usually supplied in this way : 3"d) mocfote fagen WaS id? WOttte, 
er Hieb unbewegt,/:? remained unmoved, whatever 1 said ; 3$ ging jeben 

Xag aui, e» incite regnen ober fc&neien, I went out every day, whether 

it rained or snoiued. 

4.) In relative clauses, referring to general negatives ; as, 3$ fenne 
ntemanben, bev geleferter ware al5 er, I know none who is more learned 
than he ; %d) bin nie 311 t&m gefemmen, wo id) nid)t $rembe bei i&m 

angetrctfen ftatte, / never came to him without finding strangers with 
him. Of the same description are subordinate clauses with ba£ in such 

propositions as, ©er if* fo einfaltig, oaf? er ba$ nicbt einfafee, who is so 

simple as not to see that(\\t. that he should not see that); (?r tfcat fj?, Cfyt\€ 
bag id) e5 featte fcinbern fdnnen, Ac did tt without my being able to pre- 
vent it. However, the corresponding indicative tense (§ 78) may like- 
wise be used in such propositions. 

5.) After the following conjunctions indicating, partly, contrariety to 
fact, and partly, contingency : a(5 Ob, or, al5 wenn, as if; al$ ba$,than 
(before an infinitive) ; bamit (or, ba$, if equivalent), in order that ; and 
benn or bann, in the sense of unless ; as, @r fprtd)t alS wenrt (or, al5 
Ob) er linfer ^)err Ware, he speaks as though he were our master ; l§ie 

baben ibn $u fe&r beleibigt, al4 Oap er 3bncn je wgei&en wiirbe, you 

have offended him too much for Fiim ever to pardon you; (5$ fei) benn, 

baf? er 1$ bereue, unless {it be) that he repent it ; Xbue es, bamit er fepe *', 

baft bU fetn $reunb btfr, do it, that he may see* that you are his friend. 

6.) To soften an assertion, either from modesty or hesitation, imply- 
ing a distrust in our own judgement or perception, or in the propriety 
of what we say. It is however only the imperfect, not the present 
tense of this mood, which is used with this import; as, 2Ba5 anbere 
baran loben, ware id) febr genetgt 311 tabeln, what others praise in it, 
I should be much inclined to blame ; 3db ba'cbte, wtr fdnnten ba$ m-orgen 

tbun, I should think we could do that tomorrow ; 3$ WUnfcbte, &ie 
liefjen mid) in 9?Ube, I could wish you would leave me in peace ; 2>a5 

bat ber 3ufatt gut getroffen, unb metn ©efangner warjr benn bu 

(Goethe), that is a lucky chance, and thou art then (it would seemf) my 



* Implying however a possibility that it will not have that effect ; but if 
the result is certain, we should rather use the indicative, bamit et ftef)t. 

f In propositions, too, expressing an end or aim just obtained or arrived at, 
we often use the subjunctive, and perhaps with a similar import, as if implying 
a wish to have it confirmed ; as, 2)en ttmren wit (0$, him (I think) we have 



§ 131.] USE OF THE IMPERATIVE. 337 

prisoner. Thus also in requesting a favour : as, $3aren <&ic Wt\)\ fo 
flUtiy, mivba^ gU CrflarCll? would you be so kind as to explain this to me? 

Siirfre idb Sie bitten, mtr ba$ jti gei^en? »wgta / beg you to show me 
that? This softening subjunctive is in frequent use with the auxiliaries 
biirfetl, mogen, and fb'nnen, with which it generally implies a greater 
degree of contingency, which may be expressed in English by possibly, 
or, not unlikely ; as, (gie biirften (or, mbcinen) eintt tt>ohf Ifrfac^e &aben 

biejYy JU beiYUen, possibly you may one day have reason to repent 

this; 3?er>men ®ie eincn Du^enfcbirm mit, es fonnte regnett, take an 

umbrella with you,< it may perhaps rain ; So etrra? ttlb'cfctC fiti) V0t\)\ lite 
CYC\^n(\\,such a thing may perhaps never happen. 

Obs. 2. In many instances the use of the subjunctive arises from the 
ellipsis of a conditional clause, or of a leading verb; as, 2Der fjatte ba? 
gegfailbt! who would have believed this ! (supply " if he had not seen 
it ") ; @tf fodtcn ba§ tfjUJI, you ought to do that, viz. if you would look to 
propriety, or to your advantage; (5f W'd\'C fo etrtfas! faht^! could he be 
capable of such a thing. 1 referring to what had just been said, or to the 
appearance of the case. Thus also in Schiller's Maria Stuart, Kennedy 

says, (SatffvemuMtcb- hcitte @nglanb fie empfflngen ! hospitably (you say) 

England has received her ! alluding to what Paulet had just before said. 

USE OF THE IMPERATIVE. 

§131. The use of this mood being nearly the same as 
in English, we have to notice the following rules only : 

1 . When addressing any one in the third person instead of the second 
(see § 59, Obs. 2), the nominative can never be omitted ; as, fprectyftl 
ete (fprecbe dv, or <Sie— see p. 154), speak: but when we address in 
the second person the nominative bit, or ifcv, is omitted, unless it be 
emphatic, just as in English ; as, fpVtdfr, speak (thou) ; fpre$et, speak 
(ye) ; ©efje hill unb t&lK be^yletct)en, go and do likewise. But we 
say, @ep bu rufjkj, be you guiet; ©djweiy) bu unb la£ ibn teben, be 

you silent and let him speak ; the pronoun having the verbal emphasis. 

2. The imperative of the third person, i. e. of a subject not addressed 
personally, is borrowed from the subjunctive: 9)?an fdfweige*, let them 



got rid of; 2)n£ wart getfyan, this is then done (it seems) ; £iec rcnrett wir ntfo, 
here we are then (at last, I think). 

* The analogy between the subjunctive, imperative, and the future, which 
has often been noticed in other languages, exists, as will be perceived, also in 
German. Hence foUen, shall, is employed as an auxiliary both of the future 
tense and of the imperative mood,— see the next rule. Compare also note (*), 
page 328. 

2 G 



338 SYNTAX. [§ 131. 

be silent ; 9?temanb ailtltorte ifymjet no one answer him. See also note 
(t) P- 154. 

3. As in English, the imperative may be expressed also paraphrasti- 
cally by means of auxiliaries ; as, £af;t (or la£, if addressing a single 
person) UttS gefjen, let us go ; ©ie fcCten m'lii) beyleiten, you shall ac- 
company me. See also feflen in § 82. 2Boden and pDgen are some- 
times used in this mood to render a request more respectful ; as, 

2Denn i# Unrecbt tfmt, fo woffen (or mb'jjen) ®te e3 pfUff pergcifjen, 

If I did wrong, you will kindly pardon it. As in other languages, the 
future is often used imperatively; as, gi.e WCrbett ttlicl) fjtCV CViPttrtcn, 
5/ow wi// expect me here. 

Obs. 1. Regarding the passive imperative we observe as follows : I.) 
The imperative of la|]eii with an infinitive is off en employed as a passive 
imperative denoting a request to submit to an action ; as, @ej?e llYib {a$ 
bid) attf(eiben,go and be, ox get pressed; Cajfen ©It' fid) ratben, 6<? advised 
(compare § 82, Ofo. 2). 2). The imperative of fepn with the participle 
past of another verb is often usedoptatively, to express as a wish the effect 
of an action intended by us; as, ©eptt <5ic Ptrfifbert, 6e assured (i. e. I 
assure you); ©epb §?$Vii$t, I salute you (literally, be greeted); 2)dfih' fcpb 
lie6CP0tl timfangeit, /or i^tftf Zetf me embrace you (lit. oe embraced) affec- 
tionately {Schiller). Analogous are such expressions as,(5)0tt fep (jelcbt ! 
God be praised! (S» fep bit PCrjiCDCIl, I pardon you. Such combina- 
tions, with fepn, according to the nature of this auxiliary (§ 79), refer 
rather to the state resulting from the action, than to the actual per- 
formance of it, and cannot therefore be considered as the exact coun- 
terpart of the imperative of the active voice. This can be expressed 
only by the auxiliary werben, as exhibited in the table, p. 166. It 
must however be allowed, that the imperative with JPCVben is little in 
use. 3.) This imperative must not be confounded with the past par- 
ticiple used imperatively, which is always employed in an active sense, 
and therefore often joined with an accusative (see § 93, Obs. 2). We 
may further observe, that this participle cannot be joined as an active 
imperative with any auxiliary; and the English expressions "have 
done ! " " be gone ! " which iorm a kind of aorist imperative, must be 
rendered into German by an equivalent; such as, £bre ailfl or, lPirf? 

bii aufbb'ren ? gefce we» ! 

Obs. 2. A kind of imperative is also sometimes used with the first 
person singular, implying a final resolution after some hesitation : (§fb 
id) bie (gacl;e niir auf, let me (or, I will) give up the affair ; (§e)tC&' ic^'5 
nut*, let me (I see I must) confess it {Goethe). 



§ 132.] USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 339 

use: of the infinitive. 

§ 132. The infinitive is used with, or without, the particle 

3"> to,— 

1st. Without the particle jit, in the following cases : — 
1.) When not dependent on any other word, viz. when 

used either as the mere name of the action or state, or 

as the nominative to a verb ; as, 

l)ai ttennt er anig fepn, that is what he calls being polite; ©epn, ober 

nicbt |Vpn, fca$ tjt frte tftage, To be, or not to be, that is the question (see 

also note (*), p. 154),- 9(tte 9)?enf#en gletcfc He&en, ifr unm'ogncfc, fo/ow 
all men equally, is impossible ; ^uf etnem ©treme fegeln, if! angene&m, 

fo saz7 orc a river, is pleasant. However, in the latter capacity, viz. as the 
nominative to a verb, the infinitive is frequently preceded by gu, and more 
especially so when the proposition is not general, but refers to some par- 
ticular case; as, Me ^enfcfreivgfetcb ju (te&en, ware mtrunmb'gitrB, to 

love all men equally, would be impossible for me; £je0t ailf einem @trOme 
jjU fegeln, Ware gefd&Vltcbyfo sail now orc a wr would be dangerous. 

2.) After the auxiliaries of the potential mood (§ 81), 
and after those verbs mentioned in § 81, Obs. 2; the cor- 
responding English verbs to which are, for the most part, 
likewise followed by the infinitive without the particle to. 

To these may be added, a.) The infinitive governed by madben, to 
male, but chiefly in some particular expressions : etnen (fl$en ttiacben, 
to make one laugh; bte W$K geften ttiaCTjen, to set the watch a-going; and 
in a few other instances. b.) f Infinitives depending on the verbs, 
fifteen, to find; fcabett, to have ; \tifyUn,tofeel; and bleifrett, to remain; 
when expressive of a position, situation, or condition (see Obs. 1); 
as, (£r 6lteb Itegen, fi'gen, &c, he remained lying, sitting, 8fc. ; %<$ \tit)le 

fetnen $ul$ fcfrlagen, I feel Ms pulse beating; @r feat tuele &cbafe auf 

Me 2Beibe ge^en, he has many sheep at (lit. going to) pasture ; 5Btr f#fl« 

ben t&n unter einem $aume figen (ffefjen, or licgen), we found him 

sitting {standing, or lying) under a tree, c.) The idiomatic expres- 
sions, fectteln ge&en, to go a begging; f#lafen gefren, fo go to bed; 
fpa^teren ge()en, fa&rcn, or reiten, to take a walk, a drive, or a ride; 

(Jr t&ut nicbt5 al£ fcbwafen, larrjen, &c, he does nothing but talk, laugh, 

$c; S)ltK tjt gut WObnen, gut lebeil, &c, it is good dwelling, good living, 
here, Sfc; ^U fya\i gut resell, it is easy for you to talk. 

Obs. 1 . It will be seen that most of the English verbs corresponding 
with those belonging to the preceding rule are followed either by an 

2 G 2 

• 



340 SYNTAX. [§ 132. 

infinitive without the particle to, or by a participle present. Simulta- 
neousness of the action of the leading verb with that of the infinitive 
seems to be the principle of the constructions referable to this rule. 
Hence, when the infinitive relates to a time subsequent to that of the 
leading verb, it is either preceded by ju, or its place supplied by a finite 
verb with ba£ ; as, ^>ie Oteligicn le&rt un§ unfern $eirtben gu uersetben, 

Religion teaches (bids) us to pardon our enemies ; s $cn bCX 5)?ticbt, bie 

$?itleiben mit uh'8 &at, fctlten wir lernen, H aucr) gegen anbere gu fcafcen, 

yVow £Aa£ Power that pities us, we ought to learn to pity others ; 3$ bOXi, 
5a£ er gurilCf fommen W \tb, J hear that he will come back. If an infini- 
tive dependent on (jaben is preceded by Jtl, (jaben denotes, as in similar 
constructions in English, a right, or an obligation*; as, @ie baben frier 

3u befc5len,yow have to command here ; 3$ fcabe nocb etwa£ JU tfjtm, / 

/wye j/<?£ something to do. This construction has some analogy with that 
of the infinitive governed by fepn ($91, Obs. 3), both of them imply- 
ing expectation, or intention. It is also not unworthy of notice, that,, 
like the participle past of transitive verbs, the infinitive in these con- 
structions has an active or passive sense, according as it is joined with 
frafren or fepn. — Compare the above examples with those given at p. 21 5. 
Obs. 2. As most of the verbs belonging to this rule often have in the 
compound past tenses the infinitive instead of the past participle (see $ 
81, Obs. 2), it sometimes happens that three infinitives follow each other 
in the same clause without any particle; as, 3$ bcitte fie fittgen fjb'ren 
ttlb'gen (for gettlOC&t), J should have liked to hear her sing. See also in 
the quoted Obs. the example, @r rciirbe fur etnen Pettier, &c. In other 
tenses, too, the same succession of three infinitives is possible; as, 3$ 
Yv'lll fie fi'ngen lebren laffen, / will have her taught singing. However, 
this accumulation of infinitives ought, according to grammarians, to be 
avoided. When two such infinitives occur without any governing verb, 
the last infinitive stands for the past participle, and the governing verb 
is the auxiliary haben, omitted according to § 128, Obs. 8; as, (?itt 
>Mx ber range 3eit fein 29rcb (supply hatte) ertctn^en milffen (for ye- 

ttfU^t), a bear that/or a long time had been obliged to dance for his bread 
{Gellert). 

2nd. With the particle £tt, when depending on any other 
verb than those just mentioned, or on any substantive, ad- 
jective, or preposition ; as, 

* It may perhaps interest the curious student to observe, that in analogy 
with the English shall, this auxiliary, from its import of obligation, has given 
rise to the French future tense ; it having been proved beyond a doubt that 
the inflections of that tense in French are nothing but the present tense of 
avoir : je parler-ai, tu parler-as, fyc. Ulphilas (see p. 1) also uses the Gothic 
haban as an auxiliary of the future tense. 



J 132.] USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 341 

3$ frat l&n ju fcbweigcn, / begged him to be silent ; @ie giefct t)or i{jn 
gefi^en jU baben, she pretends to have seen him; (5r cerlancjt eingelatren 
jii trerben, he demands to be admitted; iSeftrebe bid? ba$ 311 fepn, vraj; 

bu }ll fcbfinCll triinfrbCj?, endeavour to be what you wish to appear ; kli 

ffitnft jU gefaflerr, the art of pleasing ; bereit atte* 5U tra^en, raufy *o 

venture anything; Slnjratt JU arbeitCtt, ft&laft ft*, instead of working, he 
sleeps; @r §iv,$ Weg, Cftne ein 2Bcrt 311 fagen, he went away without 
saying a word. 

Obs. 3. The subject of the action or state expressed by the infinitive, 
is always omitted in German, and therefore the verb of a dependent 
clause can be used in the infinitive mood, only when its subject is one 
and the same individual, either as the nominative, or objective case, 
of the leading verb. Thus the two first examples of the preceding rule 
are respectively equivalent to "I begged him that he would be silent," 
" She pretends that she had seen him." In the first sentence him and 
he refer to the same persons, in the second she is the nominative to 
both verbs. In English, however, the verb of a dependent clause is 
sometimes put in the infinitive when its nominative, not being referred 
to by any word of the leading proposition, cannot be omitted, which is 
therefore turned into the accusative as the regimen of the leading verb. 
Thus, for " I believe that he is my friend," one may say " I believe him 
to be my friend." This construction (so well known in the Latin gram- 
mar under the term of " the accusative with the infinitive ") is not ad- 
missible in German, and we can use only the finite verb with ba$ : 3$ 
tf.aube, b a% er mein #Mtn& iff. Of the same description are such pro- 
positions as, " He wanted (desired, ordered, wished, or expected) the 
breakfast to be ready at nine o'clock j " "I will allow (admit, or prove) 
him to be a clever man ;" "I suppose (think, or know) him to be your 
friend :" in all which instances the infinitive must be rendered in Ger- 
man by a finite verb, and the accusative turned into the nominative. 

There are, however, many verbs in both languages which do not admit 
their dependent verb to be in the infinitive, even when its nominative 
is the same with their own subject; which usage is best learned from 
practice. Upon the whole it will be found that the English and Ger- 
man do not differ much in this respect; and in case of uncertainty it. 
is always safest to use the finite verb with baf?. We subjoin, however, 
a few rules which may assist the learner. 

The infinitive may generally be joined with verbs implying, 1.) The 
inducement to do or not to do the action it denotes; as, beftfrlen, 
to command; bitten, to beg; broken, to threaten; ratten, to ad- 
vise; uevfprecben, to promise; vrarnen, to warn; cerbieten, to forbid ; 
fUrcbten, to be afraid; abratben, to dissuade, §c. 2.) The source or 
ground of any statement, and at the same time a doubt or suspense 



342 SYNTAX. [§ 132. 

of judgment with regard to the truth of what is expressed by the de- 
pendent verb; as, fdhCinen, to appear; jjlaufretl, to believe; fi'db einbtf; 
ben, to fancy ; fid) fdbmeicfreln, to flatter oneself; fcCfKU, ^o £op<? / 
fctWOren, *o swear; latlylten, to deny ; befcblllbigen, toaccv.se, $c. But 
verbs denoting the mere statement of a fact without any implication 
of doubt, and those implying knowledge, or perception, — such as, 
fagen, to say ; ergafjleH, to relate; ttltiben, to mention; DerfUnbtyCn, 
to promulgate; antigen, io announce; mittfKtlen, to communicate ; 
ttuffen, 2o know, to be aiuare of (in the sense of to understand how to 
manage, it governs an infinitive) ; eirtfeb'en, to perceive, &c, — are seldom 
joined with the infinitive. 3.) The effect on our feelings caused by the 
state or action expressed by the dependent verb; as, frcb fveuen, to re- 
joice ; bereuen, to repent; fid) Cjramen, to grieve ; e* iff mtv Uefr, leib, 

&c, I am glad, sorry, §c. 

Obs. 4. We have to notice here some peculiar offices of this mood. 
1.) It sometimes indicates the final cause of the leading proposition, 
and is then generally (but not always) preceded by um, for ; as, (5v t&at 
biefeS tttir, um mir 311 fd)abCW,hedid this only in order (lit. /or) to injure 

me ; Sftan lebt ntdn um ju eiTen, fobevn man i£t um 311 leben, one does 

not live in order to eat, but one eats in order to live ; 2)if 2?tbel lief? man 
tf)V, ba? £er$ $U &e|fe«l, the bible was left her to improve her heart. When 
a correlative to the particle 3U,or geilUy, in the leading proposition, um 
with the infinitive determines the degree of intensity ; as, %d) bill nicfH 
altyenUy*, Um ba$ JU Derflc^Cn, I am not old enough to understand this ; 
@V iff ?U flttg, Um baS gU ylauben, he is too sensible to believe that. 
2.) As in English, the infinitive is often used independently of any other 

word ; as, 2>te ©a&vhett gu fagen, icb &atte fein @elb bet mtv, to tell the 

truth, J had no money with me. 3.) English hypothetical infinitives must 
be expressed in German by trCIHl with a finite verb ; as, To look at him, 

one would think, $c, wenn man t&n anfiebt, feflte man benfeit, &c 

4.) The English as, used before an infinitive as the correlative of so, or 
such, in the principal proposition, remains untranslated in German ; as, 
Be so good as to give me that book, feptt igie fo gutty, mtv bat 2)UCf) gU 
CjCben ; / am not so simple as to believe such a thing, \&) bin lltcbt fo gifts 
faltta,, fo etttmS gu ylaubcn. If these particles {so, and such) have the 
verbal emphasis, implying an unusual degree of intensity, the following 
infinitive must in German be rendered by the finite verb with ba$ ; as, 
She was so enraged (or, in such a rage) as to be unable to speak, fit Ycax 

fo nnit&enb (or, in einer folcjKn 2Dut&), ba$ fie ntcbt fpreien fonnte. 

Obs. 5. We conclude with the following remarks: — 1.) When the 
English verbal in ing is used as a substantive (in its participial or adjec- 
tive character, it will be considered in the next Section), it is mostly 
rendered in German by the infinitive, or by its equivalent (i. e. the finite 



§ 133.] USE OF PARTICIPLES. 343 

verb with bilfi), if the infinitive be inadmissible (see Obs. 3) ; as, Tlie 
pleasure of seeing you, bfti ^CrylUiyCtt ®ie 3U fC^jCH ; Capable of doing 
it, fafcty C» m t&UH; I shall not fail of coming, ifr WCXbC nifilt evittflfl* 
qcln JU f cm men (see also the examples of the 2nd Rule); The news of 
the peace being signed, tic ^acm'tdn, ba$ bev #rtebe unterjcirimet fep ; 

When he heard of her learning Greek, a 15 Cr evftl&r, ba(5 fie ©Vtcdlifcb 

lernte ; His rising so late surprised us, ba£ er fo fydt auftfanb befrembete 
HJ#. 2.) If the English verbal in ing be preceded by a preposition, the 
corresponding preposition in German is compounded with brt (compare 
§ 64, 03s. 4); as, He takes pleasure in teasing the children, er fi'nbet 2>CV- 
gniigen bavan,bie 5tinber JU ttetfen; Depend upon my bringing the money 

tomorrow, wtaftett ©^ ftcfp barattf, bap icjj morgcn ba5 Oeib bringe; 

She felt herself offended by your coming so late, fie fUfjlte fid) babtivcll be= 
leibijjt, b&$ ©ie fo fpat famen. 3,) As in English and other languages, 
the infinitive in German governs the same cases as its verb; as may be 
seen from several of the above examples. However when it is used sub- 
stantively (§ 91), the object of the action cannot be in the accusative, 
but is put in the genitive ; as, ba$ 3><it)lCt\ bC5 (Selbe?, the counting of 
the money ; ba5 (Styiefjfctt ber Ktnbet, the educating of children. 

USE OF THE PARTICIPLES. 

§. 133. The two participles, which we have noticed in §§ 
92 and 93 as concrete adjectives, are employed in their 
participial character to supply the place of the verb and its 
connective, in clauses beginning with a relative, or with one 
of the conjunctions inbem, whilst ; al», as, or when; fca, 
since ; and «?cmi, when ; as, 
£>cr @rei$, jitternb t>or tffflte, unb ocn £iin$cr tvlfyopft, erbarmte un?, 

the old man trembling (i. e. who trembled) with cold, and (who was) 
exhausted from hunger, excited our pity ; S)eit $rtef UlUerjeicfrnenD 
fagte er, &c, signing {i. e. whilst, or when, he signed) the letter, he said, 

Sfc; 3*om Un^iutf gctreffen, Derga&t (?*.; aber ocm ^liitf angelacfreft, 

i|T lie Ubevmiittjiy, (when) afflicted by misfortune she is desponding, but 
(when) smiled upon by fortune she is overbearing. 

Obs. 1. This construction, so extensively employed and so readily used 
even in colloquial language in English, is in German far more limited ; 
being, generally, confined rather to serious and elevated language, and 
entirely inadmissible in some particular cases where in English it is 
freely used ; as may be seen from the following remarks. 

Respecting the use of this construction we may remark 
as follows : — 



344 SYNTAX. [§ 133. 

1.) The participle of the dependent clause must refer to the subject 
of the leading verb. — See the above examples. However, when no 
ambiguity can arise, it is used sometimes also in reference to the ac- 
cusative of the leading verb, especially in poetry: %i eurer Seite 
fedHCnb [ief? id) fie (Schiller), I left her fighting at your side (i. e. whilst 
she was fighting). As a concrete adjective, however, the participle 
may, o? course, refer to any substantive ; its inflection and place (be. 
fore its substantive) precluding all ambiguity : $3a$ id) bem ttlir brOs 

benben 5JTanne rerfagte, getra&re id) ^erne b?m befc^eiben bittenben 

(?)?anne), «>A«tf / refused to the man threatening me, I willingly grant 
him (when) modestly begging. 

2.) The subject of the participle is always understood, as in the 
above examples ,• and therefore the nominative absolute, as it is termed 
in the English grammar, is inadmissible in German, and must be express- 
ed by circumlocution. Thus, for instance, " my father expecting me, 
I cannot go with you," must be rendered by "as my father expects me, 

I cannot, &c," 2>a mid) mein 2ta'ter errcartet, &c. 

3.) The auxiliary verbs are, as such, never used in the present partici- 
ple, that is, their present participle is never joined — not even as a con- 
crete adjective* — either with the past participle (see§ 68, Obs. 2), or with 
the infinitive* of another verb : and such expressions as,"Having finished 
my letter, I copied it," " Being presented to her, he said," &c, must be 
rendered by a conjunctional clause : Sfac&bem id) meilten S9ticf geenbtgt 

Hm, fftjxkb id) t(m ab ; $1$ er ifrr rorgefMt wurbe, fagte er, &c. 

4.) If a relative clause is restrictive, pointing out an individual, class, 
or species, it cannot be rendered by this construction ; as, SDienfcften, 
welie ma jjtg leben (or, ptajfig lebenbe 3)?enfcl)en, but not ^enfcben 

mapiy lebenb), finb fetten fvanf, people living moderately are rarely 
ill. 

Obs. 2. The present participle governs the same case as the verb in 
the active sense; as, %fym ben s ,$rtef Ubergebeilb, fflgte er, &c, deliver- 
ing him the letter, he said, fyc. The past participle cannot be used in 
this construction, unless the verb ftpn, to be, be understood (compare 
§§ 79 and 93), and therefore with transitive verbs it can be used so in a 
passive sense only, and construed in the same manner as the verb in the 
passive voice (§ 126): $on bem .9?ebner be* £>och»errat(j5 angeffagt, 

pert&eibiyte er fid), &c, accused by the orator of high treason, he defended 
himself, fyc. In some instances the past participle has been supposed to 
have an active import, the auxiliary fjaben being understood ; as, 1)en 



* Such expressions as, tie ^3t)tf)rt<]orifcf) fepn follenben Xt)Qtt)iiUn, the follies in- 
tended to pass for Pythagorean ( Wielund), are uncommon. 



§ 134. J ORDER OF WORDS. 34-5 

2ftttf ben ©clfen guyefc^vt, oerlafU er balb ber Ouiber fidnnv e>pur, 

(having) ^is /ooZ\s directed towards the clouds, he (Pegasus) soon forsakes 
the safe track of the wheels {Schiller). But, as may be supposed from 
the English translation, such instances are more naturally explained by 
considering the participle to be used in a passive sense, as an adjective 
referring to the accusative, both depending on the omitted verb 
fyaben in the character, not of an auxiliary, but of a principal verb*. 
As such, indeed, bafcen is also frequently omitted before substantives 
unconnected with any participle ; for instance, in the following pas- 
sage in Goethe's Faust : %d) die fort i&r ewtQe^ Ctc^t JU trinfen, 
cor mir ben Xag, unb Winter mir bie 9latt)t, ben £immel iioer mir, unb 

Unter mir bie 2Betfen, / hasten on, to drink his (the sun's) eternal light, 
(having) the day before me, and the night behind me t the sky above, and the 
waves below, me.— See also the end of § 125. 

Obs. 3. As in English, the past participle, like the absolute infinitive 
($132,05*. 4), is often used independently of any noun, and as modifying, 
with its adjunct, the whole proposition ; as, 3ugegeben (or, gefe&t) baf? 

er e$ vou£te, rote fonnte er e$ oerfctnbern? granted (or, suppose) that he 
knew it, how could he prevent it? 2>tefen %ai\ au^enomrnen, iff nttiu?> 

3M 6efUr(l)ten, this case excepted, there is nothing to fear ; btefetf POraUS 
gefegt, this taken as granted; unter IMS fjefaCjt, between ourselves; 

aufric&tig geftanben, candidly confessing; f?ren$ Qenommen, taking it 

strictly, &c. It will be perceived from these examples, that in this con- 
struction the German past participle is used in an active sense, and 
may therefore govern an accusative j and that it sometimes answers to 
the English participle in ing. 

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 

§ 134-. In an independent sentence, the natural or logical 
order of words is as follows : the subject, the finite verb, 
the dative, and accusative governed by the verb (if however 
the latter be a personal pronoun, it precedes the dative), 
the adverb, the genitive, and last, the prepositional phrases 
immediately connected with the verb — chiefly such as note 
its direction, or aim ; as, 
(Sr fcfcrieb t&r einen 25rief, or, etnen 25rief an fie, he wrote her a letter, 

or, a letter to her ; ©ie befchulbtgte tfjn ber Xreulofivjfett, she accused him 

of perfidy ; %fy fcbitfte meinen ©e&n in bie ©cbuie, / sent wy son to 

* Just as one may say, " He had a dagger concealed under his cloak," where 
concealed is an adjective, and not the component part of a past tense. Com- 
pare also note (f), p. 333. 



34*6 SYNTAX. [§ 134. 

school ; j$ empfdfof £>tf tfottl, / recommended you to him; @l* bctru.i^ 
}l$ jVfor f bef yCgCn Mid), /?e behaved very nobly towards me. 

So far the two languages agree in their arrangement; 
but in the position of the predicate or of words belong- 
ing immediately to the verb, they differ widely. In Ger- 
man, such words are placed after all the dependents of the 
verb ; in English, before them, i. e. immediately after the 
finite verb. Even the order of the constituent parts of the 
predicate is reversed in the two languages — the past parti- 
ciples and the infinitive of the compound tenses being, in 
German, preceded by the component parts of the verb 
(5 89), or by adjectives belonging to the predicate, whilst 
in, English they are followed by these words. (Compare 
§ 89, Obs, 3.) We subjoin some examples : — 

dr mtfr&e feinen befren ^reunb foerau? aefebert fyabtn (not, foaben foe* 

rail? gefobeit, see note (*), p. 1 61), he would have called out his best friend ; 

<5r wivb fdnen $reunben treu bleiben, he will remain faithful to his 

friends ; $$ bin btefctf (SefcbafteS btinafoe miibe, / am almost tired of 
this business. See also the examples at p. 205, seq. 

Obs. 1. In the preceding arrangement, as well as in the following 
rules, it is supposed that each part of the proposition has its current or 
usual relative degree of emphasis. But, from special reasons, a word 
may often attract some particular attention, and become more empha- 
tic than usual ,• in which case, generally, inversions take place, and 
words are removed from their usual position, either to the beginning of 
the sentence (see § 135), or more towards the end of it. Hence, we 
frequently find in such cases not only the dative after the accusative — 

'as, 3\t yab ben 3ftn$ enblich feinem #ruber, I gave the ring at last to 

his brother — but sometimes even words depending on the predicate, or 
on a non-assertive verb, following the word on which they depend, in 
order to attract more of our attention; as, @r i|t mit tfor OCteiniftt 
bmd) unauflbf'liche $unbe (instead of the more common order, burci? 
UnailjTriylidfcJe 2)Anbe ceretntyt), he is united to her by indissoluble ties; 

3ch fann nicbt langer fobsr eigen ju fclcfren unerfoimen s 3)ittTetfoaten, / 

can no longer be silent at such unheard-of misdeeds. See also the third 
example of the following second Rule. — A prepositional phrase de- 
pendent on an adjective very frequently follows it; as, @1C t|t ft' for bbfe 

tfu'f Sie, she is very angry with you; 3$ bin jufrieben mit biefer Arbeit, 

/ am satisfied with this work. 



§ 134?.] ORDER OF WORDS. 34-7 

We subjoin a few rules respecting particular {farts of a 
sentence : 

1. The substantive is preceded, as in English, by the article and other 
definitives, and by its adjective, in the order noticed in (J 89, Obs. 3 ; as, 

biefe bvet fc&'rinen £aufer, iebe* mtt groan^y i?omefFU$en ^immeni, 

these three beautiful houses, each with twenty excellent rooms ; aiU IHlfeve 

guten #reunbe, all our good friends ; ber erjte fd?b'ne Sag biefev 'iDccfee, 

the first fine day of this week; ettte yCW^e fcalfce ©tlM&C, a full half 

hour. The position of feibn, welcfo tra* fiir ein, fe, fClfi), yClUty and ail, 
has been noticed in §§ 60, 65 and 66. 

2. x\n adjective having several words depending on it, may, contrary 
to the English idiom, still follow the general rule, and, preceded by its 
own dependents, take its place before the substantive it qualifies ; as, 

btefer uiiyliicnicfre, etne$ beffevn @$icFfal6 ttuirbtge $?ann, this unfor- 
tunate man, worthy of a better fate ; ettt (?$)$ fttlfj liefer, linb 3 fc l? 11 %l\% 
brettcr ©raben, a ditch sir feet deep, and ten feet ivide*. See also the 
examples in § 51, Obs. 7. Such adjectives, however, thus encumbered 
with dependents may also follow their substantives, as in English ; and we 

may say, biefer ungliicftic&e vDiann, trurbiy etne$ frciTeftt<&cfricffaI5; ein 

(Sraben, fect>6 #11)3 tief, unb jetm £llp hn'U. As in English, this con- 
struction may be used also with adjectives unencumbered by depend- 
ents, when there are several belonging to the same substantive ; as, ein 
Start, Cjrejf, retell, Unb yele&l'i, a man, great, rich, and learned. 

Obs. 2. Poets sometimes put even the concrete adjective after its 

substantive; as, (gage mir, 3)iufe, vom 9)ianne bem oieigewanbten (for, 

COn bcm Olelyerpanbten 5Jiatme), tell me, Muse, of the man, the much-ex- 
perienced (man). Another poetical licence we may notice here, viz. an 
interposition of words between the genitive and the noun governing it; 

as, 2Ba? fofl ber^n&alt Upn bes neuen $uift&? (for, SRa$ fell ber 

3"n()aU be5 neuen 25unbe« feptl ?) what is the substance of the new League 
, to be? (Schiller). Other unusual transpositions sometimes occur in poeiry, 



* The following example has been adduced in a German publication as 
"hard:" 2)iefec uon feinen Unrerttynnm treulDS uerlaffene, mit bem ^affe feiner 
SBenunnbten fcelabcne, au$ ben @cdn,ea fetne£ 9?etcf;e5 qitid) tineva Ue&elrijater uet; 
bnnnte, untet frembem rnafjem £tminel umfyerinreiibe, %ut\t. To translate this and 
bimilarinstances,which,itmust be allowed, are tiring totheattention,the learner 
must first take the definitive inhere, biefer), then the substantive belonging to 
it (Siitft), then the several adjectives with their respective dependents preceding 
them(uerlnt7en oon,...betrtben rnit,...»er&imnt au$,...mn()erirrenb unter); the literal 
translation will then run thus : This prince, perfidiously forsaken by his subjects, 
burdened with the hatred of his relatives, banished like a criminal from the limits 
of his empire, wandering about in a foreign, ungenial, climate. It would 
have wanted little change to render the preceding arrangement more clear. 
— Compare the end of § 135. ■ 



348 SYNTAX. [§ 134. 

which, however, generally, will be easily understood by the English 
reader. 

3. The finite verb, as has already been explained, is thrown to the 
end of^its clause, when divested of assertion (see p. 207 and § 108, 
Obs. 2), i. e. when depending on any of the subordinative conjunc- 
tions* (see the list and examples, page 259), or on a relative pronoun 
(see the examples in § 65), or on a relative adverb (see § 65, Obs. 5). 
This is the case also in all indirect questions, — that is to say, a verb 
used interrogatively, depending on a preceding verb or noun, is thrown 
to the end, being devoid of assertion ; as, $ragC i&n, SBattll if gtirilCf 

gefommen xft? unb, 2Dauim er nicbt gefcbrieben &at? ask him, When he 

returned? and, Why he did not write ? ©age in it", 1T0 bll ten gallon 
3Dintev Ubev If avjt, tell me where you were during all the winter ; bit 
•tfl'age, 3Bev ifrnl bd$ gefagt fjabe? the question, Who has told him that? 
All clauses in which the finite verbis not assertive, may be denominated 
dependent clauses. With respect to the assertive verb or the finite verb 
of an independent sentence, see § 135, Obs. 1. 

4. The infinitive follows its dependents; and if the infinitive itself is 
dependent, it generally follows the word on which it depends (see the 
examples in § 132), except when depending on one of those verbs that 
govern the infinitive without JU (see the first rule of § 132), in which 
case it precedes its governing verb, if the latter is not assertive, i. e. is 
itself in the infinitive, or belongs to a dependent clause ; as, 3$ werbe 

warten miirTeu (not, miifjcn warten), / shall be obliged to wait ; Htf er 

Mtcb Cjd)CU liep, when he allow td me to go: though in the equivalent 

sentences, 3'cb ivcrbe genetfcigt fepn ^u warten ; q M$ er mirerlaubre gu 

ge&en, the infinitive, being preceded by Jtl, mostly follows its governing 
verb. The same order is observed when the infinitive stands for the past 
participle : 2Dt'lilt ic& i&n fcatte langer Waxtcn laffen, if I had allowed 
him to iv ait longer. See also the examples in § 81, Obs. 2. We may 
observe on this occasion, that in dependent clauses the finite verb does 
not follow the two infinitives just noticed, but generally precedes the 
last, or both of them, as in the last example. 

Obs. 3. When the infinitive, or a clause beginning with bafi, or a re- 
lative clause, depends on a word nearly at the end of a preceding sen- 
tence, it is frequently separated from its governing word by the sentence 
being finished before the dependent member commences ; as, 2Benil ®ie 
mir ben 2>efefcl aeaeben fatten, 3&nen ba5 $ferb ju faufen (or, ba§ icb 

3blien bay tyfevb faufen foflte), if you had given me the order to buy (or, 



* In such sentences as, (?r fagte, i>a$, n>enn Uf) ifjn einoelnbcn tyattc, er geroifj 
gef oir.mcn ware, he said that, if I hud invited him, he would certainly hate come, 
the learner will observe that the second clause has its verb (luare) at the end, 
from its being dependent on the conjunction fcnp. 



§ 134.1 ORDER OF WORDS. 349 

that I should buy) you the horse; %<X <5\t bte ©enialbe JU f C ^ e II WU'nfcJien, 
bie id) in %taht\\ gefailft fcafte, as you ivish to see the pictures ivhich I 
have bought in Italy, The dependent clauses might in these examples 
have been inserted immediately after the words on which they respec- 
tively depend (2?efc0l and ©emalbe); but not so well in the following, 
where it wanted but one particle (oin) to finish the principal sentence, 
and where the relative clause is long: 3d? pacf e eften bie (Sadbcn Cin, 

bie id) meinem $ruber biefe 2Bocbe mit bem (5tUt>agen fd)itfen will, I 

am just packing up the things which I intend sending to my brother this 
week by the diligence. 

5. Adverbs must precede, as in English, the adverb or adjective 
which they modify; as, gewif? ntCTjt, certainly not ; nicnt gettu£, not 
certain; gatlj VCCfrt, quite right; Ctn red)t filter 3)?ann, a very good 
man; @r ttnff 05 ntcfct ttueber tf)Un, he will not do it again; @r will 05 
ttJtebev ntdtjt t&tttt, he again ivill not do it. Several adverbs, however, 
mostly of a restrictive, or adversative, nature, — such as, ntir, or blcf?, 
only ; ftefonber*, particularly ; tt>enigf?en$, at least ; erf?, (it is, or, was) 
but; Ijingegen, on the other hand; fogar, even; and some others, 
— may precede or follow the word they refer to ,• as, ntir er, or, or 
JlUr, he only ; erf? geitet'n, or, geftern erf?, (it was) bid yesterday (see 
also the examples, p. 228). 3tttein, only, or alone, always follows the 
word it restricts: %{{t flofren, er attetlt ftlieft, all fled, he only (or, alone) 
remained. As a conjunction, it is at the beginning of its clause; though 
its equivalent, after, may be placed indiscriminately at the beginning or 
after'the verb. Thus, in the first example of § 109, Obs. 3, we might 
equally say, Qx (jot after fcine (Mafrrung, or, 2(fter er fiat, &c. 

The adverb modifying the predicate generally precedes it immedi- 
ately if the latter be expressed by separate words (see note (f), p. 
207), otherwise the adverb is placed at the end of the sentence; as, (Fr 

bat meinen 25ruber giitig aufgenommen, unb ion aufjevft fretinbiicb 

fte^anbelt, he has received my brother kindly, and has treated him uncom- 
monly friendly ; 3$ werbe freute 'Jfftenb nicbt 311 *jaufe fepn, I shall not be 
at home this evening ; ©iefctyrieft ben $rief ntcfct, she did not write the •letter. 
6. Prepositional phrases implying the direction, or the object, of an 
action, being closely connected with the verb, are generally preceded 
by the adverb referring to the verb; as, Qanf gefdbwtnb atlf bit >)30fr, 
run quickly to the post-office ; (5r Wirb oft baran bCtlfen, he will often 
think of it ; 2Btr finb fe^r Urtt fie ftef'Umtnert, we are much concerned 
about her. Prepositional phrases denoting the scene, time, or other 
circumstances, are less fixed in their relative position; which is much 
the same as in English. They, however, generally precede the objec- 
tive case, if the latter be an indefinite object ; otherwise they more 
frequently follow it. Thus, we commonly say, ^Cfo frafte in jenem Cilfeen 
eln $aar £anbfc{?uf)e gefauft, I bought a pair of gloves in that shop; 

2 H 



350 SYNTAX. l§ 135. 

and, 3$ babe tie $anbfc&u&e (the gloves) in jenem Paben get'auft ; 
©r fiat cor fcrei Xagen einen sSrief er^aften, Ac received a letter three 
days ago; and, (?r bat jtenen 35nef {that letter) cor bvei Xagen ev&alten. 

Compare 06s. 1. 

§135. The inverted, order. If an independent sentence 
begin with any other part than its subject, the latter must 
be placed after its finite verb* (see, however, §108, Obs. 2). 
This inversion, from which the arrangement is called the 
inverted order of words, doe3 not however affect the relative 
position of any other part of the sentence, which remains 
just the same as in the natural order explained in the pre- 
ceding section. We subjoin some examples : 

©VOfj i|r bte Statta ber @pfKfet\ Great is Diana of the Ephesians; 
©liber un&(§0l& fiabe id) nidn, Silver and gold have I none; *jetltewir& 
er yCttUp nidbt fommeit, today he will certainly not come ; jSteteii faim 
t# nt#t, pray I cannot ; 9(lif vauffttCt bit? W^IU, up rushed the wave. 
Thus also, if a dependent clause begin the sentence (see p. 259) ; as, 
2Denil tCb 3^ &Stte, WOttte id) C$ tf)tin, if I had time I would do it See 
also the examples, p. 260 J. 

Ofo. 1. In explanation of the natural as well as of the inverted order 
of words, we must observe that the position of the finite verb in an inde- 
pendent sentence, is unalterably fixed, and, with a few exceptions noticed 
in Obs. 4, it invariably occupies the second place of the sentence. But 
what word is to form the first part, is entirely optional, depending merely 
on what idea, from its importance, or association, comes foremost to the 
mind of the speaker. Not only the subject therefore may begin the sen- 
tence ($ 134), but also any part dependent on the verb, as, thepredicate, 
an oblique case, an adverb, or circumstance, an infinitive, &c, or even a 
dependent clause. But as the verb must fill the second place, suffering 
only one part of the sentence to precede it, it is plain, 1 .) That if this first 

* So deeply is this transposition rooted in the genius of the language, that 
it is invariably observed even by the most illiterate people. It is also worthy 
of notice, that not only the Dutch, which has much the same order of words 
as the German, but also the Scandinavian languages, which differ in many ma- 
terial points from the German in the order of words, observe the same transpo- 
sition of the nominative when it does not begin the sentence. In English, too, 
it is of frequent occurrence, especiallyif the nominative be an important noun. 

•f The particle should never he joined with the verb as one word when it 
precedes it by inversion ; though it often occurs so in print. 

f When we meet with sentences beginning with renin in which no inver- 
sion takes place — as, SBenn \&> tfjn ucrtierert foilte, id) fonnte (for fonnte id)) nte 
umber frofj luerben, if I were to lose him, I could never be happy again — we may 
consider the clause expressive of the consequence as an after-thought, as not 
having been plainly conceived in the mind till after the conditional clause 
was finished. 



§ 135.] ORDER OF WORDS. 351 

part is not the subject, the latter must be put after the verb, and such 
collocations as, "there he comes," "yesterday we met him," " with 
this money I am satisfied," in which the verb occupies the third place, 
must, in German, if beginning in the same way, run thus : " there comes 
he," "yesterday met we him," "with this money am I satisfied." 2.) 
That, on the other hand, in the natural order, the subject cannot be 
followed immediately by any other word than the verb, and in transla- 
ting such expressions as " we often thought of you," " I sometimes go 
there," &c, the adverbs often and sometimes must be placed after their 
respective verbs. 

Obs. 2. When stating in the foregoing observation, that the verb 
can be preceded only by one part of the sentence, we mean to ex- 
clude merely such other parts as stand in a different relation to the 
verb from that preceding it ; but all such words and phrases as bear 
one and the same relation to the verb, and as can therefore be con- 
nected by a pure conjunction (§ 108), may, together with their re- 
gimens, or modifications, be considered as forming but one part, 
and may, as such, precede the verb. Thus, we may 6ay, 9J?etnen S^acfl- 

!?ar unb (or, abet ni#t) feme £inber fca&e i$ eingelaben, my neigh. 

hour and (or, but not) his children, I have invited ; %t\ einettt Xf)al 6et 

airmen ^trien, erfdbien mit jebem jungen r(a(jr, fo halb bie ertren Cercfren 
fc^ttnmen, ein Wdbcfyen f$'on unb rounberbar, in a valley among poor 

shepherds, there appeared with every spring (lit. every young year), as soon 
as the first larks chirped, a maiden fair and wonderful {Schiller.) This 
sentence consists of three parts besides the verb, viz. the subject, the cir- 
cumstance of place, and that of time: each, with its adjunct, might begin 
the sentence and precede the verb; but whichsoever this may be, the two 
others must stand after the verb. Thus, if the sentence had begun with 
the description of time, both the phrase "with every new year" and the 
subordinate clause " as soon, &c," might have preceded the verb, but 
none of the other words. This applies also to dependent clauses be- 
ginning the sentence : we may, for instance, say, 2>a et ttte $Umofen 
giefrt, ofrfc&on er fe&r reicfc) ill, fo iff er ntcfrt geacinet, as he never gives 

alms, although he is very rich, he is not esteemed. Here the second clause 
modifies the first, which, thus modified, assigns the cause of the principal 
verb — of his not being esteemed. But if it were separately modifying 
the principal verb, implying, that he is not esteemed although he is 
rich, it would form a separate part of the sentence, and the principal 
verb (tjt er) must then follow immediately after the first clause. Thus 

also we may say, Qa tcfr nicfrts ju trjiin fca&e, unb ba§ 2Better fo fc&bn if?, 

fO WiU tfb fpajierctl gefjen, as I have nothing to do, and the weather being 
so fine, I will take a walk ; for the two first clauses imply both the same 
modification (viz. the inducement) of the principal verb. But we could not 
say, as in English, "Although I have much to do, yet the weather being 
so fine, I will take a walk," for the two clauses modifying the verb in 

2 H 2 



352 SYNTAX, [§ 135. 

different ways and thus forming two parts, could not both precede it. 
We should therefore say, Dfrfcfoon id) tJtel JU tfwn fca&e, fo ttnft id) 
borl? fpqieren ^eben, ba ba5 -Better fo-fd&on t|t. (Compare also the 
examples in § 108, Obs. 1.) The same remarks obtain with the subject 
when forming the first part of the sentence, for though any word de- 
pending on the verb could not be inserted between the subject and the 
verb (see the end of Obs. 1), yet all that defines the former, — as, a rela- 
tive clause, an adjective in abstract (§ 50), with its dependents, or an ad- 
verb,— may; as, 2)ev^ann, ben (Siefo fe&r 6ettwn&ern,tf!mein9Jac&bar, 

the man whom you admire so much, is my neighbour; 2)et* $0111$, tfOn 

feinen Xruppen uetfaffen, mu£te f?c& feinen $einben ergeben, the king, 

deserted by his troops, was obliged to surrender to his enemies. We must 
however observe, that when such adjectives precede the subject, they 

create an inversion; $on feinen Xruppen pcrtaff^n* mu^te fid) ber iTdnig, 

&c.; probably, because in the latter arrangement it refers directly to the 
verb, assigning the cause of the surrender (if it referred immediately to 
the substantive it precedes, it must be inflected — see § 50, Obs. 1), whilst 
in the former order it refers directly to the substantive, being equivalent 

to, ber £'dnig, ber von fetnen Xruppen cerlaflen war, which indicates the 

cause indirectly, by implication only.— The adverbs nur, only ; beinafje, 
almost, nearly; fclion, already, and perhaps a few others, may likewise refer 
either to the subject or to its verb ; in the former case, they may follow or 
precede the noun without affecting its position ; in the latter case, their 
natural place being after the verb, they create an inversion if beginning 
the sentence; as, 3?ttr er (or, er nur) cerjte&et un5 nidfjt, he alone does 
not understand us ; 2>etna&e 3e&n 9)?enf#en finb ertmnfen, nearly ten 
people were drowned; and, 9?ur PerftefKt er ttn$ nid)t, the only thing is, 

he does not understand us; 2?etna&e roaren 3C(jrt SHenfcfcen ertrunfen, 

ten people ivere near being drowned. See also the examples of audt), p. 
264 ; those of fo (used connectively), p. 266; and § 108, Obs. 2, respecting 
the influence of conjunctions on the position of words. — In conclusion, 
we may observe, that certain adverbs and phrases, such as, nun ! or, 
gut! well! roa&rfid)! or, in ber X&at! indeed' freUicj) ! to be sure! atter= 
bingy, certainly, &c, are sometimes placed at the beginning of a sen- 
tence as a kind of interjectional transition, in which case they do not 
affect the position of the subject ; as, 9?un ! XOXX WCrben fepen, well! we 
shall see ; SBa&dicfo ! er &at fetn 2Bort ge^alten, indeed! he has kept his 

word; 2((lerbing£ (or, obne 3weifel), id) fcatte fdweigen foften, no doubt, 

I ought to have been silent. 

Obs. 3. If the subject of the verb is, from its importance, to be made 
more conspicuous, it is, in the inverted order, placed as near to the end 

as can be ; as, ^h eineni fold)en ©turm mirb f?d& wo&l niemanb &mau$ 

tt)agen, in such a storm, I dare say, nobody will venture out. (See also 
the second example in the foregoing Obs.) Not unfrequently the inde- 
finite e$ is put at the beginning for that purpose (see § 88, Obs. 4). In 



§ 135.] ORDER OF WORDS. 353 

subordinate clauses, the nominative may be preceded by all the other 
members of the clause but the verb with its component. Thus, fhe 
above example might then run so : Qa in etnem folcfan @turm f?$ 
wofjl nitmanb fjinaus wagen wivb. 

Obs. 4. The finite verb begins the sentence in all the cases where 
it is done in English, viz.: 1.) In interrogative sentences when we 
ask for mere affirmation or negation of the sentence ; as, j?ann er 0:* 
ni$t tfylin, obiV Witt er ni$t? can he not do it, or will he not*? 
2.) In the imperative mood (see § 131). 3.) In many optative sen- 
tences ; as, SEbge er immcr ylUtfltcI) fepn ! may he always be happy ! 4.) 
When the conjunction wenn,^, is omitted, — which construction is more 
extensively used in German than in English (see p. 266). To which 
may be added the construction with bed), implying that anything is 
unusual, or not in accordance with what has just been stated; as, -IDuVHlll 

foffte id) unjufrieben fei;n? fcafce icb bocb attee> wa$ id) branch? ! why 

should I be dissatisfied? have J not all I want! See also Note ((•), p. 232. 



From the preceding account of the German order of words it will be 
seen that its chief peculiarities are, 1st, that the assertive verb always 
occupies the second place of its sentence, the non-assertive, the last; 
2ndly, that the predicate is either the last part of the sentence, or, if 
the finite verb is not assertive, the last but one; and lastly, that the 
adjective, preceded by all its dependents, may be put before its substan- 
tive. Tins tendency of making the dependent parts precede their prin- 
cipal, marshalling, as it were, words and phrases according to their rank 
and office, gives to a long sentence great unity and strength. And if it 
cannot be denied that, from the facility it affords of inserting phrase 
within phrase and clause within clause, some writings abound with long, 
involved, and intricate sentences; yet it may safely be asserted, that 
such blemishes are to be ascribed entirely to want of care, skill, or 
taste ; and are seldom found in the writings of the present day, at least 
never in those of good and careful writers. To these, on the contrary, 
the German construction affords unusual means of forming clear and 
well turned periods. They may, by some inversion, call forth attention 
at the very beginning of the sentence, sustain and increase it in its pro- 
gress by closely linked and well arranged members, and satisfy it only 
at the end by a phrase, or a single word, which completes the full mean- 
ing of the period, and throws back light on every part of it. In familiar 
language, the members of a sentence are, of course, less closely con- 
nected; the first frequently containing the principal import, whilst the 
others follow like after-thoughts. 

* In such questions as, SHSo i ft et ? where is he ? 2Ben meinen ©ie ? tvhom do 
ymi mean ? Sec, the transposition of the nominative may be explained simply 
from the principle of inversion, the verb occupying its usual second place. 



354 



APPENDIX. 
ON VERSIFICATION. 



A verse consists of feet ; a foot, of two or three syllables, generally 
of different quantity. We have therefore to consider, 1.) the quantity 
of syllables; 2.) the nature of poetical, or rather, metrical, feet; and 
lastly, that of verses with their pauses (cassurae). 

Obs. 1. Rhyme being formed in the same manner as in English, needs no 
particular notice. It is moreover a mere ornamental addition to verse, and 
consequently not indispensable. Double rhyme, we may observe in passing, 
is in German far more common than in English. Imperfect rhymes, oc- 
curring sometimes, have been noticed at pages 13 and 16. 

I. Metrical quantity, or the quantity of a syllable in a verse, is not 
regulated by the length of time required for its utterance (though this 
has often some influence on it; see the following Rule 2, and Obs. 3, 
and compare § 21, Rule 2), but chiefly by its relative emphasis, i. e. by 
the stress or remission with which it is pronounced ; as may be seen 
from the following rules : — 

1.) Emphatic or accented syllables (§ 15, seqq.) are long; unempha- 
tic or unaccented syllables are short; as, Vater, heute, Nachbar, gliick- 
licher, Geduld, Planet, Theater. 

2.) Syllables with a secondary accent (§ 21) are of doubtful or common 
quantity, — that is, they may be used as long or as short, according to 
the exigence of the metre; as, KaTserinn, BruderschaTt, Elephant. — 
Respecting compounds, see Rule 4. 

3.) The preceding rules apply only to words of more than one sylla- 
ble; the quantity of monosyllables is regulated by the same law as the 
syllabic accent (§ 15), namely, by the relative importance of a word 
arising from its signification and by which it may become more or less 
emphatic than those with which it is associated. Accordingly, substan- 
tives, adjectives, and verbs of one syllable, are long; also particles im- 
plying motion (ab, auf, &:c.; as, Berg auf, Himmel an, &c). On the 
other hand, such monosyllables as denote merely the accidents of other 
words, viz. the articles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunc- 
tions, and all other particles, but those just mentioned, are of common 
quantity. 

4.) In compounds, every component part is said to retain the quantity 
which it has as a separate word ; as, Vaterland Schiupfwinkel, abge- 
brSchen Landsturm*. The particles an, auf, aus, &c, whether consi- 

* The second syllable in dissyllabic compound nouns almost invariably 
occurs in an unemphatic place, and may indeed, if the voice is not retarded 



ON VERSIFICATION. 355 

dered as prepositions or adverbs (§ 107, Obs. 1), are always long in 
composition ; as, Ausland, Nachniittag, Vorstadt, Mitbiirger. In the 
compounds noticed in §§ 16, 17 and 18, the first part is, however, al- 
ways short, if a monosyllable: abscheulich voriiber, &c. 

Obs. 2. As in English, the general drift of the movement of a poem not only 
decides the quantity of doubtful syllables, but, not unfrequently, changes that 
of syllables of fixed quantity ; so that a decidedly short syllable in an emphatic 
place must be somewhat lengthened, or accented, whilst a long one in an un- 
emphatic place must be hurried over without any stress. Thus, in the following 
iambic verse, ^cnnft bu bfiS Sanb, two bie Sitronen fctiif/n, the verb (fennft) is in 
an unemphatic place ; and of the two articles (bflS and bie) the first is unem- 
phatic, the second emphatic. In Grin getnb fomntfl bu jurucf, fommft is unem- 
phatic. Even dissyllables denoting accidents of other words (see Rule 3) are 
sometimes used as two short or unemphatic syllables. Thus, the two last 
words in 9?ttter^mann ober £ned)t form an anapasst C^ - ). In the following 
iambic feet, on the other hand, em fritylicfyeS ©ettuttfy, and in faufenbem ©fltopp, 
the inflections e$ and em are in emphatic places, and receive some stress. 

IT. Metrical feet. A foot in Poetry is nearly the same that a bar is 
in Music: it shows the standard, or the arrangement of short and long 
syllables prevailing through the verse. 

The principal feet in German are the following five; of which two 
consist of two syllables, the others of three: 

The Trochee-*- 1 : langsam, nmthig, leben. 

The Iambus """ : Geduld, entfernt, vorbei. 

The Anapaest "°~ : in Gefahr, so beriihmt, Poesie. 

The Amphibrach u ~ w : Vergniigen, geduldig, verletzbar. 

The Dactyl ~ w " : Geistlicher, Koniginn, ehrbare. 
To which may be added the Spondee ; as, Sturmschrltt, Feldschlacht, 
Gott sprach. This foot, however, never occurs but as a substitute for 
others, chiefly for iambic, trochaic, or dactylic feet. 

Obs. 8. Most of the present writers on metre adopt duplicates of feet, heavy 
or slow feet, and light or quick ones, according as the voice in the delivery is 
retarded by long vowels or many consonantSj or quickened by the contrary. 
This, however, leads to no practical purpose ; and generally, as may well be 
supposed, verses are made up of feet of either kind ; though occasionally, 
when the subject may particularly require either a slow or a quick movement, 
one or the other kind may prevail *; as may be seen in comparing the following 

by too many consonants, be considered as of doubtful quantity— especially in 
compounds of common occurrence, — such as, gufytmann, ^nuptmnnn, 9?eid)Stng, 
©onntag, in which it excites little more of our attention than a syllable of de- 
rivation. — Compare § 19. The unqualified rule which is generally given, 
that subordination in importance could never influence the usual quantity of a 
word, seems somewhat gratuitous. 

* " When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, 
The line, too, labours, and the words move slow," &c 



356 APPENDIX. 

trochaic lines, of which the first two express gloomy, the others, joyous feelings : 

<Sd)n)ermut()3DolI unb bumpfig fycilft ©e(ciute 
53om fcemoften 3vird)ertrt)Utm f)ttal\ &c.—H'6lty. 

(£ia ! roie fo wad) unb fro!), 

9Bad) unb frof; ftnb metne ©innen! &c— Burger. 

III. Fi??\se. There are verses of various extent, from one foot to 
eight, or from two to seventeen syllables. Both extremes, however, 
are uncommon. Lines of one foot, but only as portions of a poem, 
sometimes occur : 

©efje ! 2Bte iebt, 9fteine 

9Serfd>t1iar>c 5Bte kept, . Nettie, 

2>ic £reae ; QBte ftre&t Stobe, 

2)ie 9?eue 2>fi$ J?et$ in mir.— ©probe, 

^ommt nad). Goethe. J'iefjet immer, &c. 

There are some entire poems in verses of two feet ; but the most 
common extent is, in rhymed verse from three to five feet, and in blank 
verse from five to six. As in English, lines of various proportion occur 
frequently, either at irregular, or (as in lyric poems) at regular intervals. 
Some verses have a short syllable more than the usual measure, and 
are then called redundant or ' hypermeier. In other verses the last foot 
or' a line may want a short syllable, or even two, if a dactyl; which 
lines may be called incomplete. 

In a verse of five or six feet, the voice, from the mere necessity of 
taking breath, generally makes some stop or pause about the middle of 
the verse, which pause is called the ccesura, or the principal ccesura, 
there being often others besides. It can, of course, take place only 
after a word where the sense either requires a stop (mostly marked by 
the interpunctnation), or, at least, admits of it, that is, between two 
words not so closely united in sense as to preclude a short suspension 
of the voice, it is considered best placed within the third, or fourth 
foot. Thus in the following verse of six iambuses, 

2)n$ ^ttd)t be$ £crrfd>et$ | W id) aiifi ium (etyten s 2J?nf, 
(The )ight of the ruler I exercise for the last time,) 

the reader will inconsciously make a short pause after ^ettJC^Cf^ (ruler); 
which pause or caesura divides the third foot, and with it the whole verse, 
into two parts: and as the movement of the second part is trochaic, a 
variety agreeable to the ear is produced, without exactly interrupting 
the measure, which is still preserved from thegeneraldriftofthe rhythm. 
A caesura between two feet could not have any such effect*. Indeed, 

* A verse is considered the more perfect, the more the feet and the words 
of which they are formed are at variance in their rhythmical movement. Thus, 



ON VERSIFICATION. 35 7 

most writers on metre will not allow such a pause to be a caesura, 
and call it division (9lbfcfrmtt). Compare Obs. 4. 

Obs. 4. There are verses which, by an invariable pause in the middle of the 
line, are divided into two equal parts, called hemistichs or half -verses. This 
pause, bringing strict symmetry into the verse, and forming an essential part 
of its structure, is called by some the lyrical ccesura. The principal verses of 
this construction employed in German, are the dactylic Pentameter (of which 
we speak hereafter), and the Alexandrine, an iambic of six feet, with or with- 
out an additional syllable. The caesura of this verse is always after the third 
foot : which position forms one of its chief distinctions from other six-footed 
iambics. Compare the verse last quoted with the following Alexandrines : 

2l(§ id) etn 93<uim nod) roar, \\t)'itt f id) be$ DrpfyeuS Sieber ; 
Sftun id) 5ur Znute waxi>,\\i)bvt £)rp()eu$ mid) jeijt roteber. — Opitz. 

We shall treat now of the different species of verse, adding a few 
specimens of each. — According as verses are made up chiefly of tro- 
chees, iambuses, anapaests, amphibrachs, or dactyls, they are called 
Trochaic, Iambic, Anapcestic, &c. The most common metres are 
iambic and trochaic ; especially the former. 

1. Trochaics occur mostly in lyric poems, in lines of three, four, or 
five feet ; verses of six feet occur also sometimes, as in the last of the 
subjoined specimens : 

@ef/t ! bn | fu)t er 1 nuf ber | 9ftntte, 

2Iufred)t | fu)t u | ba ; 
gfttt bem Sfnftnnb, ben er finite, 

2K$ er'$* 2id)t nod) fnl),&c.— Schiller. 

Sometimes the short syllable is supplied by a pause: 

Stfingt ! | fUngt ! | flingt ! | 
©tngt, o | ^reunbe, | fingt !— Voss. 

A dactyl occurs sometimes for a trochee, as the word (Sfdjiett 
(which is trisyllabic) in the following verse : 

&(ngt tf)t @ra$ien ! f(agt tf>r SDJufen i janunert, tot'Mt ! 
Set eud) tfoeure Siefcting beg 2h>oll erfcfyetnet 
9tte in curem £empef tnefjr ! etc 

2. Iambics. Here are a few specimens of lines of two feet each, alter- 
nating with redundant lines : 



in this verse, 25er &on|ig unb | bie ^ni|ferinn / each foot divides a word, produ- 
cing a movement founded merely in the metre of the verse, different from 
its usual reading in prose. But when the feet consist each of a single word, 
or of two words inseparable in sense (such as the article and its noun, the 
pronoun and its verb, &c), it causes a sameness, which soon tires the ear. 

* For er ba£. Jn the same manner we find sometimes 'nen for einen, 'rein 
for fjerein, 'mn( for einmaf. 



Siefce benft in fiifjen 26nen, 
£>enn ©ebanfen ftefy'n ju fern ; 
9?ur in £5nen mag fie gem, 
2UIe$,roa$fte roill, uerfdbonen. — Tieck. 



358 



APPENDIX. 



2Bie f)errl(id> feuc^jtet 3cf) rityme nut 

«5Ktt &te I sRatur ! 9ttein 2)otfd)en ^ter ; 

5Sie glcinjt t)te (Sonne, 2)enn fdjon're 20ten, 

55ie fad)t Die "5(ut I — Goethe. 2l($ tingS umljer, 

2)ie $8(i<fe fdjnuen, 
93!iU/n nirgenbS me!)r.— Burger. 

Iambics are frequently intermixed with anapaests, as may be seen 
from the following stanza, in which the syllables between bars form 
anapaests : 

S&er rei|tet \'o Spat | burd) %iafyt unb SPBinb ! 
(?$ ifr ber SBnjter tnit fetjnem £inb; 
(?r t)at t)en ^nafcen rcof)t | in bem 2Irm, 
Grr fnfjt if)i\ fid)jet, er f)a(t | tf;n rcarm. 

Iambics of five feet, often with a redundant syllable,are used both in 
the drama and in the stanza ; in the latter with, in the former without 
rhyme. In both compositions iambics of six feet are likewise employed. 
Both measures are often used in didactic poems, tales, and fables. Of 
the Alexandrine we have spoken in Obs. 4. 

S. Anapcestics are rarely found pure, being most generally intermixed 
with iambuses ; and so much so, that in poems of anapaestic measure 
many iambic lines may be found with only one anapaest. This is par- 
ticularly the case in Schiller. In the following verses, for instance, 

from his ballad ber Saucl;er, 

Unb e$ 90Biif|(et, unt> fie|bet, unb 6rnu]fet, unb jifdjt, 
2Bie roenn 5B<if|fer tnit 5eu|er fid) mengt ; 
SBiS jum £itn|me( fptii}|et ber bnmlpfenbe ©ifd)t, 
Unb %iwt j auf Slut | fid) ofjn' (?nlbe brangt. 

the two first lines consist of anapaests only, and the third has only 
one iambus, whilst the last has three iambuses and only one anapaest. 
If the first foot is an iambus and the rest anapaests, the verse maybe 
scanned in amphibrachs ; as the following line from the same poem : 

£ina& in | ben jtrubeutlben £rid)tcr | gejogen, instead of £in<i& | in ben frru-l 
&efnbcn, &c. 

The extent of anapaestic verses is generally, from two to four feet. 
4. Amphibrachic verse. In this metre, too, we have poems consisting 
of lines of from two to four feet; of which we subjoin a few examples : 



5Sie blidt mit | bet £itnme( 

tsm ©riinen | fo fje^r, 

2)et ©tabte | ©etiimmel 

3ftrnufd)enb j unb(eet,&c— Matthisson. 



2>et 9?rtd)ti)g<il! tei^enjbe Sieber 
(fttonen unb forfeit fd)on nneber 
2>ie ftMlid)fTen ©tunben in$ 3<i()t, 
& c . — Hagedorn . 



This measure is frequently used in comic ballads; as, for instance, in 
bit tfaifer unb ber q Jbt, by Burger, 



ON VERSIFICATION. 359 

3d) rati! eud) er$nf)(en ein sfl?nf)rd)en gnr fcynumg, 
<$& wat 'm<ri ein ftaifer, ber ftaifpt roar Furrig ; 
2lud) ront 'mal ein 2if>t, ein gnr ftattfidjer £ett, 
9?ur ©ci)a&e ! fein ©djafer roar Fluger aB er, &c. 

Some of Goethe's ballads, too, are in this metre. 

5. Dactylics vary from two to four feet. Generally, the last foot is 
incomplete, consisting merely of one emphatic syllable, or of a trochee, 
as triple rhyme is not usual : though sometimes it is met with in short 
dactylic verses, as the subjoined second example shows : 



SBter (?(e]mcnte 

Snnig gejfellt, 

23itben i>ci& \ Sefcen, 

25flueii bte \ ''Belt, &c— Schiller. 



5Beg nut beta jitternben, 

SJUeS uerbitternben 

3roeife(n won f>ter ! 

9?ur bte oerfciinbete, 

(H-ioiQ Oegi'iinbcte 

SBonne fey bit\ & c « — Goethe. 
See also the dactylics of four feet, at page 360. 

6. The dactylic or heroic Hexameter. This verse, adopted from ancient 
poetry *, consists, as its name indicates, of six feet ; the fifth of which 
almost invariably is a dactyl, the sixth either a trochee or a spondee, 
and the others are generally dactyls intermixed with spondees; for which 
latter, however, trochees are often substituted in German. The mea- 
sure of this verse is then as follows: 



The caesura is not unfrequently within the fourth foot, joined some- 
times with one in the second ; but more generally it falls within the 
third foot, either, as in the following first verse, after the emphatic syl- 
lable, or ? as in the second, after the first unemphatic syllable. 

£eU bir j ^jlfeger £olmer$ ! II efyrlnuirbiger I g}?unb be$ Djrafete. 
SRenne fie | ^tngelfttmme || beg | «ftad)()ttU$ [ tfjrem @elfief)ien. 

The second foot of the second line, and the sixth of both verses, are 
trochees; all the other dissyllabic feet are spondees. — This verse as well 
as the next (the Pentameter) are never used with rhyme. 

We subjoin the beginning of the translation of the Odyssey by Voss, 
gftelbe ben 9tt<inn mir $ftufe, ben SStefgeiunnbten, ber tmifad) 
Umgeirtt, n(S Ztoja, tie f)ei(ige ©tnbt, er jerftoret ; 

* We need not notice the other ancient measures which have been imi- 
tated in German, as they occur only in Odes and translations of little import- 
ance. The hexameter, however, and with it the pentameter, has been much 
cultivated, and its adoption found enthusiastic admirers in its time. Of' the 
number of poems in this measure, Klopstock's 3fte{|trt$, Goethe's ^ermntrn 
unb -Dorotfycn, and Voss' translation of Homer, are most known. A short 
explanation of its construction nay therefore be acceptable to some students. 



360 APPENDIX. 

SStefer 2)?enfd)en (Stribte gefefy'n, unb @ttte gelernt fyat, 
21ud) tm $fteere fo mel fyerjfranfenbe Seiben erbulbet, 
©treoenb fur feine @eele jugletd) unb ber Sreunbe guritcffunft. 
7. The dactylic Pentameter. This verse is, by an invariable pause in the 
middle, divided into two hemistichs, each of two (dactylic) feet and a 
half. In the whole, therefore, the verse has live feet (whence its name) ; 
yet some consider it as consisting of six, the third and sixth foot (which 
have only one long syllable each) being respectively completed by the 
csesurai and final pauses. The place of dactyls may in the first hemistich 
be supplied by spondees (or trochees) ; in the second, this substitution, 
though occurring sometimes, is considered exceptionable. The mea- 
sure of this verse is then 



This verse occurs only in alternity with the hexameter, which 
together constitute what is called the elegiac verse. It is however em- 
ployed not merely in elegy, but also in epigram matic and sententious 
poetry, of which latter we subjoin a few examples from Schiller: 

Sfjeuer tfr [ mil ber | greunb, || bod) | and} ben 1 Setnb fann id} | niiijen; 

Setgt mtr ber | $rennb ^aS id) | fann, || lefyrt mid) ber | geinb )u<i$ id} | foil, 
(gtef) ! uoll ^Dffnung uertrnuft bu ber Grrbe ben golbenen ©amen, 
Unb erroarteft tm Sens II frofyltd) bit fetmenbe @ant : 
Sftur in bte gurd)e ber Sett uebenfft bu bid) Xfyaten ju ftreuen, 
2)te uon ber SSkiSljeit gefa't || flill fiir bit (£\via,ttit fclufj'n. 



The various species of verse have each some characteristic peculiarity : 
dactylics, for instance, are light and sprightly ; trochaics — especially 
when interspersed with spondees — rather steady and serious ; anapas- 
staics have more of impetuosity; whilst the movementof the amphibrachic 
measure is sportive and undulating, as it were. By these peculiarities 
each species may, more or less, suit particular subjects ; and by the 
selection of a proper measure a very happy effect is often produced; 
which becomes still more striking when, as is sometimes the case, the 
metre changes with the subject in the same poem. 

Thus Schiller, in his poem, bie 2Biirbe ber $vatien, contrasts in alter- 
nate stanzas the character and manners of women with those of men : 
the former he describes in dactylics, the latter in trochaics ; as may be 
seen from the following beginning of it: 

(Fljret bte grnuen \ @ie fled)ten unb ir-eoen 

•£imtn(ifd)e 9?ofen in£ trbtfdje Sefcen, 

3Ked)ten ber Siebe 6eglucfenbe» 23nnb ; 

Unb in ber ®va)it judjttgem @d)leier, 

sftol)ren fie n)ad)fam bo$ eroige geuer 

©d)5ner ©efityle nut fjetltger £<inb. 



ON VERSIFICATION. 361 

@n>ig nuS bet 2Bnfjtl)eit <Sd)tanfen 
©rfjaeift be$ Cannes nufbe £trtft, 
llnflnt ttei&en bie ©ebanfen 
2fuf bem 9ftcet bet Seibenfdjaft, &c. 

Ramler, in describing the floating of Ino in the sea, very judiciously 
uses the amphibrachic measure : 

2Bo Gin id) ? £) £imme( ! 
3d) atf>me nod) Sefcen '? 
£) SBunbet! id) roalte 
3m gfteete ! mid) I)e&en 
2)ic SBellen empot ! 

Similar to the effect arising from the adaptation of the metre to the 
subject, is that of adapting the sound of the verse to its subject by 
the selection of words. As an example, we may quote a verse from 
Schiller's Cieb D011 ber (SlOCfe, referring to the weighing of the bell out 
of the pit : — 

%\tf)ti\ jietyet! &e&t ! 

From Burger, especially, many examples of this nature might be 
adduced, if we could make room for them*. 

The adaptation of sound to the sense is, in German, often connected 
with alliteration f. Thus, in the following example, all the words of 
the first line imply and imitate sounds: 

Sifple, Saute, tifpfe finbe, 
20ie burd) Snub t>ie Si&enbroinbe; 
20ecfe mit bem (gpief bet £'3ne 
^Keine ©iijje, tnetne ©d)one, 
9Son bem ietfen ©d)Uimmet nuf. 

In the following lines by Arndt (with which we conclude this subject) 
the alliterated words hebt, fyod) and ^immcl, most likely are cognates ; 
as well as the corresponding English words, heave, high, and Heaven : 

%ebt bnS £etj ! tye&t bie £nnb ! 
£e&t fie su bet £immet SJtteiftet ! 
Sgtbt fie ju bem ©eift tict ©etftet ! 
■fyebt fie l)od) uom Grtbentonb ! 

* The effect of the well known verse in the Odyssey imitating the rolling 
down of the stone has been pretty well preserved in the translation, in this 
hexameter : — 

•£uttig f)inn& mit ©epoftet enttollte bet tiitfifdje 9tfatmor. 

f This will be found very natural in an original language, of which the 
greater part of words is derived from a comparatively small number of primi- 
tives (see p. 5). Hence, too, there is a great number of phrases in German, 
the words of which are connected both by alliteration and sense ; as, in 3Binb 
tinb SfBettet ; mit 2ei& unb Seljen; fjoffen unb fatten; fhuif unb frei, &c. 

2 I 



362 



SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 

Note to page 46. — "5)iit, with. 
That part of this work was already printed off when I perceived 
that Dr. Grimm, in the third volume of his often quoted grammar, 
adduces these two particles as two distinct roots, stating at the same 
time that with does not exist in Gothic and German ; that it is however 
the primitive of ttufcer, against. He seems therefore to presume their 
identity to be out of the question. There does not appear any ground 
however, either in the form or in the import of these particles, against 
the supposition of their being identical. With respect to the final letters 
t and th, Grimm himself introduces the Gothic mith,the Anglo-JSaxon mid, 
and the Dutch met, as identical with the German mtt. The interchange' 
of m with other labials, especially with w and v, is generally known, and 
wants no further confirmation here*. I will however, as peculiarly 
analogous, refer ^to the Greek /unx being in the iEolic neroc. With 
regard to the import of these particles, the preposition with is in En- 
glish equivalent'to mtt ; in Anglo-Saxon it signifies also opposition, like 
with in withstand, and like the German ttJtber. The two ideas however 
are more closely connected than may at first appear. Things coming 
in contact may easily be conceived as in opposition to each other. 
Even the German mtt is used sometimes in the latter sense ; as, mtt 
einettt fe$ten, to fight with (i. e. against) a person. Very likely there- 
fore the verb to meet, is the parent both of mit and withf. For the 
same reason Scaliger's derivation of the Latin contra from cum (con in 
composition), seems very probable, and corroborates the above remark. 

Note to page 46. — %£\t, tent. 
The last form exists also in Dutch and Low German. The usual de- 
rivation of tent, from the Latin tentorium, is very improbable ; as the 
name of an article indispensable in primitive ages can, in an original 
language, hardly be otherwise than vernacular. Adelung's opinion, 
that it is related to tentorium, is more probable. Very likely tent is 
identical with tilt, and derived from the verb to tilt, as tentorium is from 
the Latin verb tendere. Even the French tente is most likely Teutonic ; 
for the Latin termination orium is in French generally changed into 
oire, as repertoire, auditoire, consistoire, fyc. 

* In Welsh, m, under certain circumstances, is regularly changed into w. 
There is some ground for supposing that in the Teutonic, too, w may in the 
first stage of the language have been, in some cases, a mere modification of m. 

+ It is not improbable that even the Gothic ga-wiian Old German, ti-roitau 
(lo connect), as well as the English to wed, and mate, belong to the same 
family. 



SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 363 

Note to § 69. 
The two simple tenses, the present and imperfect, were originally the 
only tenses of the verb ; the present being used also (as it still is some- 
times — see p. 328) in reference to future time, whilst the imperfect 
served for all the tenses of past time. The compound tenses, imply- 
ing a figurative use of the words of which they are composed, must, 
of course, be of a later origin. And indeed, in Ulphilas (p. 1), there 
is no indication of a compound past tense; all the past tenses of 
the Greek text being rendered by the Gothic imperfect ; though the 
future is sometimes expressed by means of an auxiliary (compare note 
(*), p. 340). The first appearance of a compound past tense in German 
is, according to Grimm, found in a record of the eighth century ; but 
in the writings of the ninth century such tenses are already in full use^ 
The auxiliaries employed were nearly the same as are still in use- 
namely, fofl<?n, shall, for the future (see note (*), p. 328), and fcctben and 
SttyXi for past tenses; the former with transitive verbs, the latter with 
those neuter verbs which still employ it (§ 80). In the oldest German 
records, another verb denoting possession, viz. Ctgan, to own, was 
used as well as fyabcn ; which however does not occur in later re- 
cords (see Grimms JDeut. Gram. vol. iv.). In all compound tenses the 
past participle was originally treated as an adjective, agreeing in gender, 
case, and number, with the noun to which it referred, i. e. with the 
subject of the action when combined with fcpll, and with the object or 
accusative when combined with fjaben — as in some instances it is still 
in French, e. g. les lettres que fai tcrites, fyc. 

In the production of the various compound tenses, the language, it 
will be perceived, simply made use of the figure of Metonymy, taking in 
the future tense the cause for the effect, and in the past tenses the effect 
for the cause; and as " I shall write a letter," which literally denotes the 
present inducement (obligation) to a future action, is employed to express 
that future action itself, so " I have written a letter," which primarily 
implies the present effect of a past action -(the possession of a letter 
written), is employed to denote that past action itself, or the completion 
of that action (compare § 69). The same remark applies to neuter verbs 
conjugated with fcpn. Indeed with most of these, the past participle 
is used to this day both in its primary and figurative sense, expressing 
the effect or the present state, as well as the cause or the previous 
action. Thus, 3)ie JSlume if! rerwelft, may denote either ihefloiver is, 
or has, faded. The conjugation of neuter verbs with fyabtn (§ 80) must 
have originated at a later period, when the primary import of the 
combination of the past participle with frabfn — i. e. that of possession — 
was no more felt. 

Note to the Irregular Conjugation (§83), 
This conjugation, which observes strict analogies (see § 86), must not 



364 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 

be considered as a corruption of the regular ; it is only the older and, 
most likely, the primitive conjugation. For the producing of new 
forms by changing the vowei merely, is so simple, that nature herself 
seems to have taught it to man when he endeavoured to imitate her 
sounds. It has been observed by Grimm that the three principal vowels 
used as a means of conjugation, viz, i, a, u (sing, sang, sung), are also 
the oldest vowels existing in Sanscrit. The priority of this conjuga- 
tion may be supposed also from the fact, that most of the verbs follow- 
ing it denote natural functions and occupations, and must therefore 
belong to the very first words of language. At a later period, when 
the import of the changes of vowels was no more felt, this form of 
conjugation became obsolete; and then, to denote past time in newly 
formed verbs, recourse was had to inflection, or rather composition, — 
for the inflections in their origin most likely were current in the lan- 
guage as separate words. This later form is now called the regular 
conjugation, having been followed by all verbs formed since its adop- 
tion and by many others which originally followed the old conju- 
gation ; so that in the whole they form now such a majority as to cause 
those still following the old conjugation to be considered as mere ex- 
ceptions, — that is, as irregular verbs. — In the oldest Teutonic dialect — 
in the Gothic — both these forms of conjugations existed ; together with 
a third form, comprehending a considerable number of verbs. In this 
third conjugation the past tense is formed by reduplication, as in Greek; 
v& faltha {I fold), faifalth {I folded). The imperfect of the verb 
t&tin, to do (tfcat, did), is supposed by Grimm to be a remainder of that 
Teutonic reduplication. 



THE END. 



Printed by Richard and John E. Taylor, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 



7 



ERRATA ET CORRIGENDA. 

Page 12 last line but one, for 7 read 6. 

— 30 line 9, omit the example of fpajteren ; — also the three examples of 

foreign origin in the next page. 

— 44 — 4 from the bottom,jfor fatten read fnuen. 

— 66 — 6, for 45 read 46. 

— 70 — I, insert before 2)emut(), Stnmutf), grace. 

— 82 — 6 from the bottom, omit 23er(eumbung, slander. 

— 84 last line but one.ybr arrester read a person arrested. 

— 90 — 6, for 25 erg read Sag. 

— 101 — 27,/or Obs. 4. and 5. read Obs. 1. 

— 110 — 7, for Obs. 3. read Obs. 4. 

— Ill — 9 from the bottom,/or incloses read includes. 

— 112 — 11, for abgefyattete read abgefyattct. 

— 129 — 18, transpose (or &ernamtid)e) to the next line after &erfe(&e. 

— 136 — 34, for 2 read 6. 

— 149 — 21, omit the words or rather circumscribed. 

— 175 — 5, for mutTte read tnuj3te. 
— SI, for all read nearly all. 

— 182 — 15, for second read first. 

— 199 — 19, for ntebec tn t en read nieberfnien. 
— 27, for 2 read 1 . 

— 200 — 7, for 86 read 82. 

— 204 — 19, omit the words to follow. 

— 216 last line,/or erne read ein. 

— 220 — 21,/or § 56. Obs. 2. read § 55. Obs. 4. 

— 239 — 11, transpose in after runs about. 

— 245 — 19,yor etnem read einen. 

— 246 — 21, omit the words and uon. 

— 263 — 12, insert at before this moment. 

— 266 — 33,/or 4 read 1. 

— 272 — 12,/or § 114. read p. 286. 

— 274 — 5, for Obs. read third exception. 

— 284 — 4 from the bottom, transpose (a thing) after the word by in 

the preceding line. 

— 296 — 13 from the bottom,/or 97 read 96. 

— 300 — 4 from the bottom, ^r &tttniter read bamit et. 

— 317 — 15, for 4 read 3. 

— 323 — 12 from the bottom, for or pronouns referring to things read 

or if the object in question be a noun. 
— - 334 — 2, for Obs. 1. read Obs. 2. 



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